Compositions and methods for treating fibrotic disease

ABSTRACT

The present disclosure relates to compositions and methods for treating or preventing a fibrotic disorder or disease.

STATEMENT REGARDING SEQUENCE LISTING

The Sequence Listing associated with this application is provided in text format in lieu of a paper copy, and is hereby incorporated by reference into the specification. The name of the text file containing the Sequence Listing is 300078_403 WO_SEQUENCE_LISTING.txt. The text file is 2.3 KB, was created on Feb. 6, 2015, and is being submitted electronically via EFS-Web.

BACKGROUND

Progressive scarring (fibrosis) is a pathological feature of many chronic inflammatory diseases, and is an important cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Fibrosis is characterized by the accumulation of excess extracellular matrix components (e.g., collagen, fibronectin) that forms fibrous connective tissue in and around an inflamed or damaged tissue. Fibrosis may cause overgrowth, hardening, and/or scarring that disrupts the architecture of the underlying organ or tissue. While controlled tissue remodeling and scarring is part of the normal wound healing process promoted by transdifferentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts, excessive and persistent scarring due to severe or repetitive injury or dysregulated wound healing (e.g., persistence of myofibroblasts) can eventually result in permanent scarring, organ dysfunction and failure, and even death.

Fibrotic changes can occur in vascular disorders (e.g., peripheral vascular disease, cardiac disease, cerebral disease) and in all main tissue and organ systems (e.g., lung, liver, kidney, heart, skin). Fibrotic disorders include a wide range of clinical presentations, including multisystemic disorders, such as systemic sclerosis, multifocal fibrosclerosis, and organ-specific disorders, such as pulmonary, liver, and kidney fibrosis (Rosenbloom et al., Ann. Intern. Med. 152:159, 2010; Wynn, Nat. Rev. Immunol. 4:583, 2004). While the etiology and causative mechanisms of individual fibrotic disorders may vary (e.g., ischemic event, exposure to a chemical, radiation, or infectious agent) and are poorly understood, they all share the common feature of abnormal and excessive deposition of extracellular matrix in affected tissues (Wynn and Ramalingam, Nat. Med. 18:1028, 2012).

There are no effective therapies on the market today in the U.S. for treating or preventing fibrotic disorders. Current treatments generally target the inflammatory cascade that contribute to the progression of fibrosis and may temporarily improve symptoms, but are not effective in the long run (Wynn, 2004). Furthermore, the lack of biomarkers for assessing fibrosis progression or regression and therapeutic response has impeded rapid clinical screening of potential therapeutics (Schuppan and Pinzani, J. Hepatol. 56:S66, 2012; Castro and Jimenez, Biomark Med. 4:133, 2010).

There is clearly a need in the art for new, effective methods of treating or preventing fibrotic disorders and for identifying biomarkers for use in developing therapeutic agents and assessing therapeutic response. The present disclosure meets such needs, and further provides other related advantages.

BRIEF SUMMARY

In one aspect, the present disclosure provides a method for preventing, treating or ameliorating a fibrotic disease, comprising administering to a subject having a fibrotic disorder a therapeutically effective amount of a modulator specific for any one of the genes or encoded products listed in FIG. 7, Table 1, Table 3A, Table 3B, Table 5, Table 6, Table 7, an eIF2 component or regulator, an eIF4F complex or regulator, an eIF4F complex component or regulator, an eIF5A or regulator, or any combination thereof.

In other aspects, the present disclosure provides a method for reducing the risk of developing a fibrotic disease, comprising administering to a subject at risk of developing a fibrotic disorder a therapeutically effective amount of a modulator specific for any one of the genes or encoded products listed in FIG. 7, Table 1, Table 3A, Table 3B, Table 5, Table 6, Table 7, an eIF2 component or regulator, an eIF4F complex or regulator, an eIF4F complex component or regulator, an eIF5A or regulator, or any combination thereof.

In further aspects, the present disclosure provides a method for reducing myofibroblasts, comprising administering to a subject at risk of developing or having a fibrotic disorder a therapeutically effective amount of a modulator specific for any one of the genes or encoded products listed in FIG. 7, Table 1, Table 3A, Table 3B, Table 5, Table 6, Table 7, an eIF2 component or regulator, an eIF4F complex or regulator, an eIF4F complex component or regulator, an eIF5A or regulator, or any combination thereof.

In still further aspects, the present disclosure provides a method for inhibiting or reversing transdifferentiation of a fibroblast to a myofibroblast, comprising administering to a subject at risk of developing or having a fibrotic disorder a therapeutically effective amount of a modulator specific for any one of the genes or encoded products listed in FIG. 7, Table 1, Table 3A, Table 3B, Table 5, Table 6, Table 7, an eIF2 component or regulator, an eIF4F complex or regulator, an eIF4F complex component or regulator, an eIF5A or regulator, or any combination thereof.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows the induction of procollagen secreted from fibroblasts by TGFβ. Procollagen type 1 levels (Procollagen Type 1C-Peptide, “PIPC”) were measured after 24 hours of treating fibroblasts with various concentrations of mTOR inhibitor PP242 and 10 ng/mL TGFβ. The difference in absorbance at 450 and 540 nm (y-axis) is proportional to the procollagen concentration.

FIG. 2 shows a Western blot of protein phosphorylation levels during fibroblast transformation. Western blot analysis of fibroblast transformation as monitored by measuring α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) levels after 24 hrs of treating cells with various concentrations of mTOR inhibitor PP242 and 10 ng/mL TGFβ.

FIG. 3 shows the translational and transcriptional profile of fibroblasts treated with TGFβ. Comparison of changes in mRNA levels (RNA) and translational rate (RPF) in fibroblasts treated with TGFβ. Data points in black have p≤0.05 for changes in translational efficiency.

FIGS. 4A to 4C show schematics from Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) depicting the genes differentially regulated at the mRNA level in the hepatic fibrosis/hepatic stellate cell activation pathway. (A) Early signaling events in hepatic stellate cells. (B) Signaling events in activated hepatic stellate cells. Gene list used and gene signature identified in analysis is based on p-value from differential concentrations of protein-coding mRNAs from control and TGFβ treated fibroblasts. (C) Provides the list of differentially regulated genes from (A) and (B) and shows the magnitude of change (log ratio) and p-value for each gene in their respective pathway (results from 5 biological replicates).

FIGS. 5A to 5C show schematics from IPA depicting the translational rate differential regulation of genes in the hepatic fibrosis/hepatic stellate cell activation pathway. (A) Early signaling events in hepatic stellate cells. (B) Signaling events in activated hepatic stellate cells. Gene list used and gene signature identified in analysis is based on p-value from differential translation rates from control and TGFβ treated fibroblasts. (C) Provides the list of differentially regulated genes from (A) and (B) and shows the magnitude of change (log ratio) and p-value for each gene in their respective pathway. (results from 5 biological replicates).

FIGS. 6A and 6B show (A) a schematic from IPA depicting the genes regulated in the eIF2 signaling pathway. The gene list used in this analysis is based upon a p-value from differential translation efficiencies from control versus TGFβ-treated fibroblasts. (B) Provides the list of differentially regulated genes from (A) and shows the magnitude of change (log ratio) and p-value for each gene in their respective pathway (results from 5 biological replicates).

FIG. 7 shows the normalization of translational efficiencies of fibrotic disorder-associated gene signature in the eIF2 signaling pathway. The bar graph shows the translational efficiencies of fibrotic disorder-associated gene signature in fibroblasts treated with TGFβ and fibroblasts treated with TGFβ and PP242. The normal fibroblast translational efficiency is set at zero, and each of the 12 genes shown had an altered translational efficiency in TGFβ-treated fibroblasts (p-value ≤0.05), which is a representative result from a single experimental replicate.

FIG. 8 shows a bar graph of the translational efficiencies of all 141 fibrotic disorder-associated genes (order as presented in Table 5) showing a differential translational profile in (A) TGFβ-treated fibroblasts as compared to untreated (normal) fibroblasts (value set at zero), and (B) how fibroblasts treated with TGFβ and mTOR inhibitor PP242 normalizes (i.e., differential closer to zero) many of the 141 fibrotic disorder-associated genes. The p-value for change in translational efficiency upon TGFβ treatment was ≤0.05 for this gene signature, which is a representative result from a single experimental replicate.

FIG. 9 shows the effect of silvestrol on the induction of procollagen secretion from fibroblasts treated with TGFβ. Procollagen type 1 levels (Procollagen Type 1C-Peptide, “PIPC”) were measured after 24 hrs. of treating fibroblasts with various concentrations of eIF4A inhibitor silvestrol and 10 ng/mL TGFβ.

FIG. 10 shows the effect of silvestrol on smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) levels in fibroblasts treated with TGFβ. The ratio of α-SMA to β-actin (control) was measured after 24 hrs. of treating fibroblasts with various concentrations of eIF4A inhibitor silvestrol and 10 ng/mL TGFβ.

FIG. 11 shows the western blot analysis of α-SMA levels upon fibroblast transformation in the presence of an unrelated siRNA control (siCont) or an siRNA specific for eIF4A1 (sieIF4A1). TGFβ-induces transdifferentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts as shown by the large increase in α-SMA levels (see column 2). The levels of negative control, β-actin, are unaffected by the presence of TGFβ and/or siRNAs. Knockdown of eIF4A expression with siRNA results in a reduced level of α-SMA production by fibroblasts in the presence of TGFβ (compare columns 2 and 4), which essentially prevents fibroblast transdifferentiation into myofibroblasts. The level of eI4A1 mRNA knockdown was about 80%, as measured by qPCR (data not shown). As shown in the western blot, a corresponding decrease in eIF4A1 protein levels was also observed (see columns 3 and 4).

FIGS. 12A to 12D show immunofluorescent staining of α-SMA in fibroblasts and TGFβ transformed myofibroblasts. TGFβ-induced transdifferentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts stimulates an increase in production of α-SMA fibrils (compare A and B). The knockdown of eIF4A prevents TGFβ induced transformation of fibroblasts to myofibroblasts and inhibits of α-SMA production, which essentially eliminates fibril formation (compare A and C). The presence of either siRNA in the absence of TGFβ has no effect on α-SMA production (see B and D).

FIG. 13 shows the correlation of translational efficiency measurements between representative experiments in the form of a scatter plot. The alignment of the dots in a straight line indicate that the genes identified as translationally regulated are highly correlated between experiments, even when the change in translational efficiency for certain genes is not statistically significant in every experiment.

FIG. 14 shows a heat map of the differential translational profile for genes modulated (renormalized) by PP242, silvestrol, pirfenidone, CPX, or TSA (Δ log₂ fold change (fibrotic cells vs. treated fibrotic cells) cut off of ≥1). Genes that show the most renormalization appear “white” in the heat map, while genes that are not renormalized appear “black” in the heat map and the genes that are “gray” had an intermediate level of renormalization.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The instant disclosure provides compositions and methods for identifying agents and validating targets for preventing, ameliorating or treating a fibrotic disorder or disease. For example, translational profiles may be used to (a) identify a candidate therapeutic against an eIF2 pathway protein or regulator (e.g., eIF2 kinase, such as eIF2AK1), an eIF4F complex or component (e.g., eIF4A, eIF4E), an eIF5A protein or hypusination-related protein (e.g., deoxyhypusine synthase, DHPS; deoxyhypusine hydroxylase DOHH), or any combination thereof, for normalizing a translational profile associated with a fibrotic disease, (b) validate a target in or regulator of the eIF2 pathway, an eIF4F complex or component (e.g., eIF4A), or any combination thereof for normalizing a translational profile associated with a fibrotic disease, or (c) identify a subject having or at risk of developing a fibrotic disease as a candidate subject for treating or preventing the fibrotic disease with a therapeutic agent against an eIF2 pathway protein or regulator, an eIF4F complex or component (e.g., eIF4A), or any combination thereof.

By way of background, an injury is an event that damages tissue and initiates the wound healing process. After injury, both mechanical (i.e., extracellular stress caused by disruption of the extracellular matrix, ECM) and chemical signals (e.g., inflammatory mediators like TGFβ) activate fibroblastic cells to increase production of extra cellular matrix (ECM) components, which begins the process of fibroblast differentiation into myofibroblasts (Tomasek et al., Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 3:349, 2002; Werner et al., Physiol. Rev. 83:835, 2003). Depending on the type of tissue being remodeled, the fibroblasts that differentiate may come from different sources, including locally present fibroblasts, pericytes, smooth muscle cells, fibrocytes from bone marrow, and from epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) (Hinz et al., Am. J. Pathol. 170:1807, 2007). In early stages of differentiation, fibroblasts also increase production of focal adhesion proteins and form stress fibers (made up primarily of actin), which is considered a proto-myofibroblast phenotype (Tomasek et al., 2002). Further differentiation to the myofibroblast phenotype occurs when TGFβ accumulates, specialized ECM components are present (such as the ED-A variant of fibronectin), and extracellular stress from ECM and cell remodeling (Tomasek et al., 2002). A hallmark of myofibroblasts is the production of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) (Hinz, J. Invest. Dermatol. 127:526, 2007). Wound healing is complete when the newly formed, crosslinked ECM takes over the mechanical load, which is a signal to myofibroblasts to undergo apoptosis (Tomasek et al., 2002; Carlson et al., J. Surg. Res. 110:304, 2003).

If the injury is severe or repetitive, or if the wound-healing process is dysregulated, fibrosis becomes pathogenic, resulting in permanent scarring or hardening of the tissue, organ malfunction or failure, and ultimately death. For example, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a poorly understood progressive and fatal lung disease that has no effective treatment other than lung transplantation (Mason et al., Ann. Thorac. Surg. 84:1121-8, 2007). Median survival of five years after diagnosis is less than 20%. Most forms of interstitial lung diseases and other forms of pulmonary fibrosis are characterized by fibrotic lesions, progressive distortion of alveolar architecture occurs and replacement with fibrotic or scar tissues with excess ECM deposition (American Thoracic Society, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 161:646, 2000; Noble et al., Clin. Chest Med. 25:749, 2004; Selman et al., Ann. Intern, Med. 134:136, 2001). This results in progressive dyspnea and loss of lung function. A hallmark morphological lesion is spatial and temporal heterogeneity incorporating areas of normal lung being directly adjacent to areas of fully established fibrosis, microscopic honeycombing, and areas of evolving fibrosis containing collagen-producing fibroblasts/myofibroblasts, often referred to as “fibrotic foci.” Myofibroblasts are present in abundance within fibrotic lesions and, therefore, contribute to the excessive scarring found in such lesions of fibrotic disease (Gabbiani, J. Pathol. 200:500, 2003).

Prior to setting forth this disclosure in more detail, it may be helpful to an understanding thereof to provide definitions of certain terms to be used herein. Additional definitions are set forth throughout this disclosure.

In the present description, any concentration range, percentage range, ratio range, or integer range is to be understood to include the value of any integer within the recited range and, when appropriate, fractions thereof (such as one tenth and one hundredth of an integer), unless otherwise indicated. Also, any number range recited herein relating to any physical feature, such as polymer subunits, size or thickness, are to be understood to include any integer within the recited range, unless otherwise indicated. As used herein, the term “about” means±20% of the indicated range, value, or structure, unless otherwise indicated. The term “consisting essentially of” limits the scope of a claim to the specified materials or steps, or to those that do not materially affect the basic and novel characteristics of the claimed invention. It should be understood that the terms “a” and “an” as used herein refer to “one or more” of the enumerated components. The use of the alternative (e.g., “or”) should be understood to mean either one, both, or any combination thereof of the alternatives. As used herein, the terms “include,” “have” and “comprise” are used synonymously, which terms and variants thereof are intended to be construed as non-limiting.

As used herein, the term “translational profile” refers to the amount of protein that is translated (i.e., translational level) for each gene in a given set of genes in a biological sample, collectively representing a set of individual translational rate values, translational efficiency values, or both translational rate and translational efficiency values for each of one or more genes in a given set of genes. In some embodiments, a translational profile comprises translational levels for a plurality of genes in a biological sample (e.g., cells), e.g., for at least about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000, 6000, 7000, 8000, 9000, 10,000 genes or more, or for at least about 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 50% or more of all genes in the sample. In some embodiments, a translational profile comprises a genome-wide measurement of translational rate, translational efficiency or both in a biological sample. In certain embodiments, a translational profile refers to a quantitative measure of the amount of mRNA associated with one or more ribosomes for each gene (i.e., translational rate, efficiency or both) in a given set of genes in a biological sample, wherein the amount of ribosome-associated mRNA correlates to the amount of protein that is translated (i.e., translational level).

As used herein, “translation rate” or “rate of translation” or “translational rate” refers to the total count of ribosome engagement, association or occupancy of mRNA for a particular gene as compared to the total count of ribosome engagement, association or occupancy of mRNA for at least one other gene or set of genes, wherein the count of total ribosomal occupancy correlates to the level of protein synthesis. Examination of translation rate across individual genes may be quantitative or qualitative, which will reveal differences in translation. In certain embodiments, translational rate provides a measure of protein synthesis for one or more genes, a plurality of genes, or across an entire genome. In particular embodiments, a translation rate is the amount of mRNA fragments protected by ribosomes for a particular gene relative to the amount of mRNA fragments protected by ribosomes for one or more other genes or groups of genes. For example, the mRNA fragments protected by ribosomes may correspond to a portion of the 5′-untranslated region, a portion of the coding region, a portion of a splice variant coding region, or combinations thereof. In further embodiments, the translation rate is a measure of one, a plurality or all mRNA variants of a particular gene. Translation rates can be established for one or more selected genes or groups of genes within a single composition (e.g., biological sample), between different compositions, or between a composition that has been split into at least two portions and each portion exposed to different conditions.

As used herein, “mRNA level” refers to the amount, abundance, or concentration of mRNA or portions thereof for a particular gene in a composition (e.g., biological sample). In certain embodiments, mRNA level refers to a count of one mRNA, a plurality of mRNA or all mRNA forms or fragments for a particular gene, including pre-mRNA, mature mRNA, or splice variants thereof. In particular embodiments, an mRNA level for one or more genes or groups of genes corresponds to counts of unique mRNA sequences or portions thereof for a particular gene that map to a 5′-untranslated region, a coding region, a splice variant coding region, or any combination thereof.

As used herein, “translation efficiency” or “translational efficiency” refers to the ratio of the translation rate for a particular gene to the mRNA level for a particular gene in a given set of genes. For example, gene X may produce an equal abundance of mRNA (i.e., same or similar mRNA level) in normal and diseased tissue, but the amount of protein X produced may be greater in diseased tissue as compared to normal tissue. In this situation, the message for gene X is more efficiently translated in diseased tissue than in normal tissue (i.e., an increased translation rate without an increase in mRNA level). In another example, gene Y may produce half the mRNA level in normal tissue as compared to diseased tissue, and the amount of protein Y produced in normal tissue is half the amount of protein Y produced in diseased tissue. In this second situation, the message for gene Y is translated equally efficiently in normal and diseased tissue (i.e., a change in translation rate in diseased tissue that is proportional to the increase in mRNA level and, therefore, the translational efficiency is unchanged). In other words, the expression of gene X is altered at the translational level, while gene Y is altered at the transcriptional level. In certain situations, both the amount of mRNA and protein may change such that mRNA abundance (transcription), translation rate, translation efficiency, or a combination thereof is altered relative to a particular reference or standard.

In certain embodiments, translational efficiency may be standardized by measuring a ratio of ribosome-associated mRNA read density (i.e., translation level) to mRNA abundance read density (i.e., transcription level) for a particular gene (see, e.g., Example 3). As used herein, “read density” is a measure of mRNA abundance and protein synthesis (e.g., ribosome profiling reads) for a particular gene, wherein at least 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, 100, 150, 175, 200, 225, 250, 300 reads or more per unique mRNA or portion thereof is performed in relevant samples to obtain single-gene quantification for one or more treatment conditions. In certain embodiments, translational efficiency is scaled to standardize or normalize the translational efficiency of a median gene to 1.0 after excluding regulated genes (e.g., log₂ fold-change±1.5 after normalizing for the all-gene median), which corrects for differences in the absolute number of sequencing reads obtained for different libraries. In further embodiments, changes in protein synthesis, mRNA abundance and translational efficiency are similarly computed as the ratio of read densities between different samples and normalized to give a median gene a ratio of 1.0, normalized to the mean, normalized to the mean or median of log values, or the like.

As used herein, “gene signature” refers to a plurality of genes that exhibit a generally coherent, systematic, coordinated, unified, collective, congruent, or signature expression pattern or translation efficiency. In certain embodiments, a gene signature is (a) a plurality of genes that together comprise at least a detectable or identifiable portion of a biological pathway (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, or more genes; a fibrotic disease gene signature comprising 11 or 12 genes from the eIF2 translation pathway as illustrated in FIGS. 6 and 7, or a plurality of genes regulated by the eIF4F complex or component thereof, such as eIF4A), (b) a complete set of genes associated with a biological pathway, or (c) a cluster or grouping of independent genes having a recognized pattern of expression (e.g., response to a known drug or active compound; related to a disease state such as a fibrotic disorder). One or more genes from a particular gene signature may be part of a different gene signature (e.g., a cell migration pathway may share a gene with a cell adhesion pathway)—that is, gene signatures may intersect or overlap but each signature can still be independently defined by its unique translation profile.

The term “modulate” or “modulator,” as used with reference to altering an activity of a target gene or signaling pathway, refers to increasing (e.g., activating, facilitating, enhancing, agonizing, sensitizing, potentiating, or up regulating) or decreasing (e.g., preventing, blocking, inactivating, delaying activation, desensitizing, antagonizing, attenuating, or down regulating) the activity of the target gene or signaling pathway. In certain embodiments, a modulator alters a translational profile at the translational level (i.e., increases or decreases translation rate, translation efficiency or both, as described herein), at the transcriptional level, or both.

As used herein, a modulator or agent that “specifically binds” or is “specific for” a target refers to an association or union of a modulator or agent (e.g., siRNA, chemical compound) to a target molecule (e.g., a nucleic acid molecule encoding a target, a target product encoded by a nucleic acid molecule, or a target activity), which may be a covalent or non-covalent association, while not significantly associating or uniting with any other molecules or components in a cell, tissue, biological sample, or subject. A modulator or agent specific for a target (e.g., translation machinery component, such as eIF2, eIF4A, eIF4E, eIF5A; translation machinery regulator, such as eIF2AK1, eIF2AK2, eIF2AK3, eIF2AK4, DHPS, DOHH) includes analogs and derivatives thereof. In certain embodiments, a modulator specific for a translation machinery component (e.g., eIF4A, eIF5A) or translation machinery regulator (e.g., eIF2AK1, DOHH) is a siRNA molecule.

As used herein, the term “derivative” refers to a modification of a compound by chemical or biological means, with or without an enzyme, which modified compound is structurally similar to a parent compound and (actually or theoretically) derivable from that parent compound. Generally, a “derivative” differs from an “analog” in that a parent compound may be the starting material to generate a “derivative,” whereas the parent compound may not necessarily be used as the starting material to generate an “analog.” An analog or derivative may have different chemical, biological or physical properties from the parent compound, such as being more hydrophilic or having altered reactivity. Derivatization (i.e., modification) may involve substitution of one or more moieties of a molecule (e.g., a change in functional group). For example, a hydrogen may be substituted with a halogen, such as fluorine or chlorine, or a hydroxyl group (—OH) may be replaced with a carboxylic acid moiety (—COOH). Other exemplary derivatizations include glycosylation, alkylation, acylation, acetylation, ubiqutination, esterification, and amidation.

The term “derivative” also refers to all solvates, for example, hydrates or adducts (e.g., adducts with alcohols), active metabolites, and salts of a parent compound. The type of salt depends on the nature of the moieties within the compound. For example, acidic groups, such as carboxylic acid groups, can form alkali metal salts or alkaline earth metal salts (e.g., sodium salts, potassium salts, magnesium salts, calcium salts, and also salts with physiologically tolerable quaternary ammonium ions and acid addition salts with ammonia and physiologically tolerable organic amines such as, for example, triethylamine, ethanolamine or tris-(2-hydroxyethyl)amine). Basic groups can form acid addition salts with, for example, inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid or phosphoric acid, or with organic carboxylic acids or sulfonic acids such as acetic acid, citric acid, lactic acid, benzoic acid, maleic acid, fumaric acid, tartaric acid, methanesulfonic acid or p-toluenesulfonic acid. Compounds that simultaneously contain a basic group and an acidic group, for example, a carboxyl group in addition to basic nitrogen atoms, can be present as zwitterions. Salts can be obtained by customary methods known to those skilled in the art, for example, by combining a compound with an inorganic or organic acid or base in a solvent or diluent, or from other salts by cation exchange or anion exchange.

In some embodiments, an agent that modulates translation in a fibrotic disease is identified as suitable for use when one or more genes of one or more biological pathways, gene signatures or combinations thereof are differentially translated by at least 1.5-fold (e.g., at least 1.5-fold, at least 2-fold, at least 2.5-fold, at least 3-fold, at least 3.5-fold, at least 4-fold, at least 4.5-fold, at least 5-fold, at least 6-fold, at least 7-fold, at least 8-fold, at least 9-fold, at least 10-fold or more) in a first translational profile (e.g., treated fibrotic disease sample or normal sample) as compared to a second translational profile (e.g., untreated fibrotic disease sample). In some embodiments, an agent that modulates translation in a fibrotic disease is identified as suitable for use when the translational rate, translational efficiency or both for one or more genes of one or more biological pathways, gene signatures or combinations thereof are increased or decreased by at least 1.5-fold (e.g., at least 1.5-fold, at least 2-fold, at least 2.5-fold, at least 3-fold, at least 3.5-fold, at least 4-fold, at least 4.5-fold, at least 5-fold, at least 6-fold, at least 7-fold, at least 8-fold, at least 9-fold, at least 10-fold or more) in a first translational profile as compared to a second translational profile.

A “biological sample” includes blood and blood fractions or products (e.g., serum, plasma, platelets, red blood cells, or the like); sputum or saliva; kidney, lung, liver, heart, brain, nervous tissue, thyroid, eye, skeletal muscle, cartilage, or bone tissue; cultured cells, e.g., primary cultures, explants, and transformed cells, stem cells, stool, urine, etc. Such biological samples (e.g., disease samples or normal samples) also include sections of tissues, such as a biopsy or autopsy sample, frozen sections taken for histologic purposes, or cells or other biological material used to model disease or to be representative of a pathogenic state (e.g., TGFβ treated fibroblasts as a model system for fibrosis). In certain embodiments, a biological sample is obtained from a “subject,” e.g., a eukaryotic organism, most preferably a mammal such as a primate, e.g., chimpanzee or human; cow; dog; cat; rodent, e.g., guinea pig, rat, or mouse; rabbit; bird; reptile; or fish.

As used herein, the term “normalize” or “normalizing” or “normalization” refers to adjusting the translational rate, translational efficiency, or both of one or more genes in a biological sample from a subject (e.g., a disease sample from one or more subjects, tissues or organs) to a level that is more similar, closer to, or comparable to the translational rate, translational efficiency, or both of those same one or more genes in a control sample (e.g., a non-diseased or normal sample from the same or different subject, tissue or organ). In certain embodiments, normalization refers to modulation of one or more translational regulators or translational system components to adjust or shift the translational rate, efficiency or both of one or more genes in a biological sample (e.g., diseased, abnormal or other biologically altered condition) to a translational efficiency that is more similar, closer to or comparable to the translational efficiency of those one or more genes in a non-diseased or normal control sample. In some embodiments, normalization is evaluated by determining a translational rate, translational efficiency or both of one or more genes in a biological sample (e.g., disease sample) from a subject before and after an agent (e.g., therapeutic or known active agent) is administered to the subject and comparing the translational rate, translational efficiency or both before and after administration to the translational rate, translational efficiency or both from a control sample in the absence or presence of the agent. Exemplary methods of evaluating normalization of a translational profile associated with a disease or disorder includes observing a shift in a gene signature or evaluating a translational profile shift due to a therapeutic intervention in a fibrotic or fibrotic-associated condition, disease or disorder.

As used herein, the phrase “differentially translated” refers to a change or difference (e.g., increase, decrease or a combination thereof) in translation rate, translation efficiency, or both of one gene, a plurality of genes, a set of genes of interest, one or more gene clusters, or one or more gene signatures under a particular condition as compared to the translation rate, translation efficiency, or both of the same gene, plurality of genes, set of genes of interest, gene clusters, or gene signatures under a different condition, which is observed as a difference in expression pattern. For example, a translational profile of a diseased cell may reveal that one or more genes have higher translation rates, higher translation efficiencies, or both (e.g., higher ribosome engagement of mRNA or higher protein abundance) than observed in a control or normal cell. Another exemplary translational profile of a diseased cell may reveal that one or more genes have lower translation rates, lower translation efficiencies, or both (e.g., lower ribosome engagement of mRNA or lower protein abundance) than observed in a control or normal cell. In still another example, a translational profile of a diseased cell may reveal that one or more genes have higher translation rates, one or more genes have higher translation efficiencies, one or more genes have lower translation rates, one or more genes have lower translation efficiencies, or any combination thereof than observed in a control or normal cell. In some embodiments, one or more gene signatures, gene clusters or sets of genes of interest are differentially translated in a first translational profile as compared to one or more other translational profiles. In further embodiments, one or more genes, gene signatures, gene clusters or sets of genes of interest in a first translational profile show at least a 1.5-fold translation differential or at least a 1.0 log₂ change (i.e., increase or decrease) as compared to the same one or more genes in at least one other different (e.g., second, third, etc.) translational profile.

In some embodiments, two or more translational profiles are generated and compared to each other to determine the differences (i.e., increases and/or decreases in translational rate, translational efficiency, or both) for each gene in a given set of genes between the two or more translational profiles. The comparison between the two or more translational profiles is referred to as the “differential translational profile.” In certain embodiments, a differential translational profile comprises one or more genes, gene clusters, or gene signatures (e.g., a fibrotic disease-associated pathway), or combinations thereof.

In certain embodiments, differential translation between genes or translational profiles may involve or result in a biological (e.g., phenotypic, physiological, clinical, therapeutic, prophylactic) benefit. For example, when identifying a therapeutic, validating a target, or treating a subject having a fibrotic disorder or disease, a “biological benefit” means that the effect on translation rate, translation efficiency or both, or the effect on the translation rate, translation efficiency or both of one or more genes of a translational profile allows for intervention or management of the fibrotic disorder or disease of a subject (e.g., a human or non-human mammal, such as a primate, horse, dog, mouse, rat). In general, one or more differential translations or differential translation profiles indicate that a “biological benefit” will be in the form, for example, of an improved clinical outcome; lessening or alleviation of symptoms associated with fibrotic disease; decreased occurrence of symptoms; improved quality of life; longer disease-free status; diminishment of extent of fibrotic disease; stabilization of a fibrotic disease; delay of fibrotic disease progression; remission; survival; or prolonging survival. In certain embodiments, a biological benefit comprises normalization of a differential translation profile, or comprises a shift in translational profile to one closer to or comparable to a translational profile induced by a known active compound or therapeutic, or comprises inducing, stimulating or promoting a desired phenotype or outcome (e.g., reversal of transformation, induction of a quiescent state, apoptosis, necrosis, cytotoxicity), or reducing, inhibiting or preventing an undesired phenotype or outcome (e.g., activation, transformation, proliferation, migration).

In some embodiments, a biological benefit comprises reducing the amount of myofibroblast cells associated with a fibrotic disorder or disease by reducing, blocking or reversing transdifferentiation of fibroblast cells into myofibroblast cells, or by promoting apoptosis, senescence or quiescence of myofibroblast cells. In further embodiments, a biological benefit comprises inhibiting or blocking the production, secretion or both of organ damaging (i.e., toxic in a fibrotic disorder) proteins produced by myofibroblasts (e.g., ECM related proteins) in a subject having a fibrotic disorder or disease. As used herein, the phrase “organ damaging proteins” refers to one or more proteins associated with myofibroblasts in the context of a fibrotic disorder under these circumstances can be toxic, whereas such proteins under normal conditions would not be organ damaging.

In some embodiments, less than about 20% of the genes in the genome are differentially translated by at least 1.5-fold in a first translational profile as compared to a second translational profile. In some embodiments, less than about 5% of the genes in the genome are differentially translated by at least 2-fold or at least 3-fold in a first translational profile as compared to a second translational profile. In some embodiments, less than about 1% of the genes in the genome are differentially translated by at least 4-fold or at least 5-fold in a first translational profile as compared to a second translational profile.

As described herein, differentially translated genes between first and second translational profiles under a first condition may exhibit translational profiles “closer to” each other (i.e., identified through a series of pair-wise comparisons to confirm a similarity of pattern) under one or more different conditions (e.g., differentially translated genes between a normal sample and a fibrotic disease sample may have a more similar translational profile when the normal sample is compared to a fibrotic disease sample contacted with a candidate agent; differentially translated genes between a fibrotic disease sample and a fibrotic disease sample treated with a known active agent may have a more similar translational profile when the disease sample treated with a known active agent is compared to the disease sample contacted with a candidate agent). In certain embodiments, a test translational profile is “closer to” a reference translational profile when at least 99%, 95%, 90%, 80%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 25%, or 10% of a selected portion of differentially translated genes, a majority of differentially translated genes, or all differentially translated genes show a translational profile within 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, or 25%, respectively, of their corresponding genes in the reference translational profile. In further embodiments, a selected portion of differentially translated genes, a majority of differentially translated genes, or all differentially translated genes from an experimental translational profile have a translational profile “closer to” the translational profile of the same genes in a reference translational profile when the amount of protein translated in the experimental and reference translational profiles are within about 3.0 log₂, 2.5 log₂, 2.0 log₂, 1.5 log₂, 1.1 log₂, 0.5 log₂, 0.2 log₂ or closer. In still further embodiments, a selected portion of differentially translated genes, a majority of differentially translated genes, or all differentially translated genes from an experimental translational profile have a translational profile “closer to” the translational profile of the same genes in a reference translational profile when the amount of protein translated in the experimental and reference translational profiles differs by no more than about 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, 1% or less.

In some embodiments, an experimental differential profile as compared to a reference differential translational profile of interest has at least a 1.0 log₂ change in translational rate, translational efficiency, or both for at least 0.05%, at least 0.1%, at least 0.25%, at least 0.5%, at least 1%, at least 2%, at least 3%, at least 4%, at least 5%, at least 6%, at least 7%, at least 8%, at least 9%, at least 10%, at least 15%, at least 20%, at least 30%, at least 40%, at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, or at least 90% or more of a set of selected differentially translated genes or for the entire set of selected differentially translated genes. In some embodiments, an experimental differential profile as compared to a reference differential translational profile of interest has at least a 2 log₂ change in translational rate, translational efficiency, or both for at least 0.05%, at least 0.1%, at least 0.25%, at least 0.5%, at least 1%, at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 15%, at least 20%, at least 30%, at least 40%, at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, or at least 90% or more of a set of selected differentially translated genes or for the entire set of differentially translated genes. In some embodiments, an experimental differential profile as compared to a reference differential translational profile of interest has at least a 3 log₂ change in translational rate, translational efficiency, or both for at least 0.05%, at least 0.1%, at least 0.25%, at least 0.5%, at least 1%, at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 15%, at least 20%, at least 30%, at least 40%, at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, or at least 90% or more of a set of selected differentially translated genes or for the entire set of selected differentially translated genes. In some embodiments, an experimental differential profile as compared to a reference differential translational profile of interest has at least a 4 log₂ change in translational levels for at least 0.05%, at least 0.1%, at least 0.25%, at least 0.5%, at least 1%, at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 15%, at least 20%, at least 30%, at least 40%, at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, or at least 90% or more of a set of selected differentially translated genes or for the entire set of selected differentially translated genes.

As described herein, a differential translational profile between a first sample and a control may be “comparable” to a differential translational profile between a second sample and the control (e.g., the differential profile between a fibrotic disease sample and the fibrotic disease sample treated with a known active compound may be comparable to the differential profile between the fibrotic disease sample and the fibrotic disease sample contacted with a candidate agent; the differential profile between a fibrotic disease sample and a non-diseased (normal) sample may be comparable to the differential profile between the fibrotic disease sample and the fibrotic disease sample contacted with a candidate agent). In certain embodiments, a test differential translational profile is “comparable to” a reference differential translational profile when at least 99%, 95%, 90%, 80%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 25%, or 10% of a selected portion of differentially translated genes, a majority of differentially translated genes, or all differentially translated genes show a translational profile within 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, or 25%, respectively, of their corresponding genes in the reference translational profile. In further embodiments, a differential translational profile comprising a selected portion of the differentially translated genes or all the differentially translated genes has a differential translational profile “comparable to” the differential translational profile of the same genes in a reference differential translational profile when the amount of protein translated in the experimental and reference differential translational profiles are within about 3.0 log₂, 2.5 log₂, 2.0 log₂, 1.5 log₂, 1.0 log₂, 0.5 log₂, 0.2 log₂ or closer. In still further embodiments, a differential translational profile comprising a selected portion of the differentially translated genes or all the differentially translated genes has a differential translational profile “comparable to” the differential translational profile of the same genes in a reference differential translational profile when the amount of protein translated in the experimental and reference differential translational profiles differs by no more than about 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, 1% or less.

As used herein, “fibroblast” refers to a mesenchymal-derived connective tissue cell that secretes extracellular matrix components, such as collagen, and other macromolecules. Fibroblasts have a spindle-shaped morphology and can play a role in organismal development and wound healing. For example, fibroblasts may be identified by global DNase I hypersensitive site mapping which establishes a lineage association (Stamatoyannopoulos et al., Nat. Genet. 43:264, 2011), or by the production of certain biomarkers (e.g., Discoidin Domain Receptor 2, DDR2 and vimentin). Fibroblasts are different from endothelial cells and hematopoietic cells.

The term “fibrotic disorder” or “fibrotic disease” refers to a medical condition featuring progressive and/or irreversible fibrosis, wherein excessive deposition of extracellular matrix occurs in and around inflamed or damaged tissue. In certain embodiments, a fibrotic disorder or disease is associated with the persistent presence of myofibroblasts in and around fibrotic foci or lesions. Excessive and persistent fibrosis can progressively remodel and destroy normal tissue, which may lead to dysfunction and failure of affected organs, and ultimately death. A fibrotic disorder may affect any tissue in the body and is generally initiated by an injury and the transdifferentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts. As used herein, “transdifferentiation” refers to the direct conversion of one cell type into another. It is to be understood that fibrosis alone triggered by normal wound healing processes that has not progressed to a pathogenic state is not considered a fibrotic disorder or disease of this disclosure. A “fibrotic lesion” or “fibrotic plaque” refers to a focal area of fibrosis.

As used herein, “injury” refers to an event that damages tissue and initiates fibrosis. An injury may be caused by an external factor, such as mechanical insult (e.g., cut, surgery), exposure to radiation, chemicals (e.g., chemotherapy, toxins, irritants, smoke), or infectious agent (e.g., bacteria, virus, or parasite). An injury may be caused by, for example, chronic autoimmune inflammation, allergic response, HLA mismatching (e.g., transplant recipients), or ischemia (i.e., an “ischemic event” or “ischemia” refers to an injury that restricts in blood supply to a tissue, resulting in damage to or dysfunction of tissue, which may be caused by problems with blood vessels, atherosclerosis, thrombosis or embolism, and may affect a variety of tissues and organs; an ischemic event may include, for example, a myocardial infarction, stroke, organ or tissue transplant, or renal artery stenosis). In certain embodiments, an injury leading to a fibrotic disorder may be of unknown etiology (i.e., idiopathic).

Non-limiting examples of fibrotic disorders or fibrotic diseases include pulmonary fibrosis, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, cystic fibrosis, liver fibrosis (e.g., cirrhosis), cardiac fibrosis, endomyocardial fibrosis, vascular fibrosis (e.g., atherosclerosis, stenosis, restenosis), atrial fibrosis, mediastinal fibrosis, myelofibrosis, retroperitoneal fibrosis, progressive massive fibrosis (e.g., lungs), chronic kidney disease, nephrogenic systemic fibrosis, Crohn's disease, hypertrophic scarring, keloid, scleroderma, systemic sclerosis (e.g., skin, lungs), athrofibrosis (e.g., knee, shoulder, other joints), Peyronie's disease, Dupuytren's contracture, adhesive capsulitis, organ transplant associated fibrosis, ischemia associated fibrosis, or the like.

Reference to “pulmonary fibrotic disorder” means diseases or disorders characterized by fibrotic hypertrophy or fibrosis of lung tissue. Exemplary pulmonary fibrotic disorders include pulmonary fibrosis, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, interstitial lung disease, interstitial pulmonary fibrosis, chronic interstitial pneumonitis, Hamman-Rich Syndrome, usual interstitial pneumonitis (UIP), fibrosing alveolitis, pulmonary sarcoidosis, progressive massive fibrosis (e.g., lungs), systemic sclerosis (e.g., lungs), lung transplant associated fibrosis, or the like.

“Treatment,” “treating” or “ameliorating” refers to medical management of a disease, disorder, or condition of a subject (i.e., patient), which may be therapeutic, prophylactic/preventative, or a combination treatment thereof. A treatment may improve or decrease the severity at least one symptom of fibrotic disease, delay worsening or progression of a disease, delay or prevent onset of additional associated diseases, or improve remodeling of fibrotic lesions into functional (partially or fully) tissue. “Reducing the risk of developing a fibrotic disorder” refers to preventing or delaying onset of a fibrotic disorder or reoccurrence of one or more symptoms of the fibrotic disorder.

A “therapeutically effective amount (or dose)” or “effective amount (or dose)” of a compound refers to that amount sufficient to result in amelioration of one or more symptoms of the disease being treated in a statistically significant manner. When referring to an individual active ingredient administered alone, a therapeutically effective dose refers to that ingredient alone. When referring to a combination, a therapeutically effective dose refers to combined amounts of the active ingredients that result in the therapeutic effect, whether administered serially or simultaneously.

The term “pharmaceutically acceptable” refers to molecular entities and compositions that do not produce allergic or other serious adverse reactions when administered to a subject using routes well-known in the art.

A “subject in need” refers to a subject at risk of, or suffering from, a disease, disorder or condition (e.g., fibrosis) that is amenable to treatment or amelioration with a compound or a composition thereof provided herein. In certain embodiments, a subject in need is a human.

The “percent identity” between two or more nucleic acid sequences is a function of the number of identical positions shared by the sequences (i.e., % identity=number of identical positions/total number of positions×100), taking into account the number of gaps, and the length of each gap that needs to be introduced to optimize alignment of two or more sequences. The comparison of sequences and determination of percent identity between two or more sequences can be accomplished using a mathematical algorithm, such as BLAST and Gapped BLAST programs at their default parameters (e.g., Altschul et al., J. Mol. Biol. 215:403, 1990; see also BLASTN at www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/BLAST).

A “conservative substitution” is recognized in the art as a substitution of one amino acid for another amino acid that has similar properties. Exemplary conservative substitutions are well known in the art (see, e.g., WO 97/09433, p. 10; Lehninger, Biochemistry, 2^(nd) Edition; Worth Publishers, Inc. NY: N.Y. (1975), pp. 71-77; Lewin, Genes IV, Oxford University Press, NY and Cell Press, Cambridge, Mass. (1990), p. 8).

Fibrotic Disorder or Disease

In one aspect, the present disclosure provides a method for preventing, treating or ameliorating a fibrotic disorder, comprising administering to a subject having a fibrotic disorder a therapeutically effective amount of a modulator specific for any one or more of the genes (including any alleles, homologs, or orthologs) or any encoded products (including any active fragments or splice variants thereof) listed in FIG. 7, Table 1, Table 3A, Table 3B, Table 5, Table 6, Table 7, an eIF2 component or regulator, an eIF4F complex, an eIF4F complex component (such as eIF4A or eIF4E) or regulator, or an eIF5A or regulator (such as DHPS or DOHH). In certain embodiments, the present disclosure provides a method for reducing the risk of developing a fibrotic disorder, comprising: administering to a subject at risk of developing a fibrotic disorder a therapeutically effective amount of a modulator specific for any one or more of the genes (including any alleles, homologs, or orthologs) or any encoded products (including any active fragments or splice variants thereof) listed in FIG. 7, Table 1, Table 3A, Table 3B, Table 5, Table 6, Table 7, an eIF2 component or regulator (such as eIF2AK1, eIF2AK2, eIFAK3 or eIFAK4), an eIF4F complex, an eIF4F complex component (such as eIF4A or eIF4E) or regulator, an eIF5A or regulator (such as DHPS or DOHH).

In other aspects, the present disclosure provides a method for reducing myofibroblasts, comprising administering to a subject at risk of developing or having a fibrotic disorder a therapeutically effective amount of a modulator specific for any one of the genes (including any alleles, homologs, or orthologs) or any encoded products (including any active fragments or splice variants thereof) listed in FIG. 7, Table 1, Table 3A, Table 3B, Table 5, Table 6, Table 7, an eIF2 component or regulator, an eIF4F complex or regulator, an eIF4F complex component or regulator, an eIF5A or regulator, or any combination thereof.

In still other aspects, the present disclosure provides a method for inhibiting or reversing fibroblast transdifferentiation into a myofibroblast, comprising administering to a subject at risk of developing or having a fibrotic disorder a therapeutically effective amount of a modulator specific for any one of the genes (including any alleles, homologs, or orthologs) or any encoded products (including any active fragments or splice variants thereof) listed in FIG. 7, Table 1, Table 3A, Table 3B, Table 5, Table 6, Table 7, an eIF2 component or regulator, an eIF4F complex or regulator, an eIF4F complex component or regulator, an eIF5A or regulator, or any combination thereof.

In another aspect, the instant disclosure provides a method for identifying a candidate therapeutic for normalizing a translational profile associated with a fibrotic disease, comprising (a) determining three independent translational profiles, each for a plurality of genes, wherein (i) a first translational profile is from a fibrotic disease sample, (ii) a second translational profile is from (1) a control non-diseased sample or (2) a control non-diseased sample contacted with a candidate agent, and (iii) a third translational profile is from the fibrotic disease sample contacted with a candidate agent; (b) determining a first differential translational profile comprising one or more genes differentially translated in the first translational profile as compared to the second translational profile, and determining a second differential translational profile comprising one or more genes differentially translated in the first translational profile as compared to the third translational profile, wherein the one or more differentially translated genes are selected from EIF2AK1, EIF2AK2, EIF2AK3, EIF2AK4, EIF5A, mTOR, DOHH, DHPS, HDAC6, SIRT2, RSK, AHCY, or the genes listed in FIG. 7, Table 1, Table 3A, Table 3B, Table 5, Table 6 or Table 7; and (c) identifying the agent as a candidate therapeutic for normalizing a translational profile associated with the fibrotic disorder when the first differential translational profile is comparable to the second differential translational profile.

In still another aspect, the instant disclosure provides a method for validating a target for normalizing a translational profile associated with a fibrotic disease, the method comprising (a) determining three independent translational profiles, each for a plurality of genes, wherein (i) a first translational profile is from a fibrotic disease sample, (ii) a second translational profile is from (1) a control non-diseased sample or (2) a control non-diseased sample contacted with an agent that modulates a target (e.g., an eIF2 component; an eIF2 regulator such as EIF2AK1, EIF2AK2, EIF2AK3 or EIF2AK4; an eIF4F complex component such as eIF4A or eIF4E; eIF5A or a regulator of eIF5A such as DHPS or DOHH), and (iii) a third translational profile is from the fibrotic disease sample contacted with the agent that modulates the target; (b) determining a first differential translational profile comprising one or more genes differentially translated in the first translational profile as compared to the second translational profile, and determining a second differential translational profile comprising one or more genes differentially translated in the first translational profile as compared to the third translational profile, wherein the one or more differentially translated genes are selected from, for example, EIF2AK1, EIF2AK2, EIF2AK3, EIF2AK4, EIF5A, mTOR, DOHH, DHPS, HDAC6, SIRT2, RSK, AHCY, or the genes listed in FIG. 7, Table 1, Table 3A, Table 3B, Table 5 or Table 7; and (c) validating the target as a target for normalizing a translational profile associated with the fibrotic disease when the first differential translational profile is comparable to the second differential translational profile.

In certain aspects, a target comprises a translation machinery element, a regulator of a translation machinery component, or combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, a target comprises an eIF2 component (e.g., eIF2α, eIF2β, eIF2γ), an eIF4F complex, an eIF4F complex component (e.g., eIF4E, eIF4A, eIF4G), or any combination thereof. In particular embodiments, a target comprises eIF2α, eIF2β, eIF2γ, eIF4A, eIF4E, eIF5A, rpS6, or any combination thereof. In further embodiments, a target comprises an eIF2α kinase (e.g., EIF2AK1 or heme-regulated inhibitor kinase (HRI), EIF2AK2 or double-stranded RNA-dependent kinase (protein kinase R, PKR), EIF2AK3 or PKR-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK), EIF2AK4 or general control nonderepressible 2 (GCN2)), mTOR, deoxyhypusine hydroxylase (DOHH), deoxyhypusine synthase (DHPS), histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6), NAD-dependent deacetylase sirtuin-2 (SIRT2), p90 Ribosomal S6 kinase (RSK), adenosylhomocysteinase (AHCY), or any combination thereof.

In certain embodiments, a therapeutically effective amount of a modulator specifically targeting eIF2AK1 activity, eIF2AK2 activity, eIF2AK3 activity, eIF2AK4 activity, eIF4A activity, eIF5A activity, or DOHH activity is administered to a subject at risk of developing or having a fibrotic disorder in order to reduce the amount of myofibroblasts contributing to the fibrotic disorder. The reduction may be due to promoting apoptosis of the existing myofibroblasts, reducing or inhibiting transdifferentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts, promoting transdifferentiation of myofibroblasts into another cell type, inducing senescence or quiescence of myofibroblasts, or any combination thereof. In other embodiments, a therapeutically effective amount of a modulator specifically targeting eIF2AK1 activity, eIF2AK2 activity, eIF2AK3 activity, eIF2AK4 activity, eIF4A activity, eIF5A activity, or DOHH activity is administered to a subject having a fibrotic disorder in order to inhibit or block the production, secretion or both of organ damaging proteins from myofibroblasts (e.g., ECM related proteins). In further embodiments, a modulator specifically targets a nucleic acid encoding the eIF2AK1 activity, eIF2AK2 activity, eIF2AK3 activity, eIF2AK4 activity, eIF4A activity, eIF5A activity, or DOHH activity. For example, a specific modulator may be an siRNA or a derivative thereof (e.g., nuclease resistant modifications, such as phosphorothioate, locked nucleic acids (LNA), 2′-O-methyl modifications, morpholino linkages, or the like).

In particular embodiments, a modulator specifically targeting DOHH activity does not modulate or minimally modulates other protein hydroxylases, such as lysyl-hydroxylase, prolyl-hydroxylase and aspartyl/asparaginyl hydroxylase. By way of background, during the formation and maintenance of fibrocellular scar tissue, certain proteins like collagen and the chaperone LTBP are hydroxylated (e.g., prolyl-4-hydroxylase modifies proline to 4-hydroxyproline (Hyp) on collagen and the presence of Hyp is required for collagen structural stability). A surprising result of this disclosure is that specific inhibition of DOHH alone (without affecting other hydroxylases) will inhibit or reverse transdifferentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts, inhibit the production and/or secretion of organ damaging proteins produced by myofibroblasts—therefore, specific inhibition of DOHH can be used to treat or prevent fibrotic disorders.

In further particular embodiments, a modulator specifically targeting eIF2AK1 activity will inhibit or reverse transdifferentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts and, therefore, treat or prevent fibrotic disorders. In certain embodiments, a modulator specifically targeting eIF2AK1 activity is used to treat or ameliorate fibrotic disorders by inhibiting or blocking the production, secretion or both of organ damaging proteins from myofibroblasts.

In further particular embodiments, a modulator specifically targeting eIF2AK2 activity will inhibit or reverse transdifferentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts and, therefore, treat or prevent fibrotic disorders. In certain embodiments, a modulator specifically targeting eIF2AK2 activity is used to treat or ameliorate fibrotic disorders by inhibiting or blocking the production, secretion or both of organ damaging proteins from myofibroblasts.

In further particular embodiments, a modulator specifically targeting eIF2AK3 activity will inhibit or reverse transdifferentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts and, therefore, treat or prevent fibrotic disorders. In certain embodiments, a modulator specifically targeting eIF2AK3 activity is used to treat or ameliorate fibrotic disorders by inhibiting or blocking the production, secretion or both of organ damaging proteins from myofibroblasts.

In further particular embodiments, a modulator specifically targeting eIF2AK4 activity will inhibit or reverse transdifferentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts and, therefore, treat or prevent fibrotic disorders. In certain embodiments, a modulator specifically targeting eIF2AK4 activity is used to treat or ameliorate fibrotic disorders by inhibiting or blocking the production, secretion or both of organ damaging proteins from myofibroblasts.

In still further particular embodiments, a modulator specifically targeting eIF4A activity will inhibit or reverse transdifferentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts and, therefore, treat or prevent fibrotic disorders. In certain embodiments, a modulator specifically targeting eIF4A activity is used to treat or ameliorate fibrotic disorders by inhibiting or blocking the production, secretion or both of organ damaging proteins from myofibroblasts.

In yet further particular embodiments, a modulator specifically targeting eIF5A activity will inhibit or reverse transdifferentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts and, therefore, treat or prevent fibrotic disorders. In certain embodiments, a modulator specifically targeting eIF5A activity is used to treat or ameliorate fibrotic disorders by inhibiting or blocking the production, secretion or both of organ damaging proteins from myofibroblasts.

In certain embodiments, a target comprises CREB5, DIAPH3, LGALS1, NACA, RPL12, RPL13A, RPL17, RPL21, RPL22L1, RPL23, RPL26, RPL27A, RPL28, RPL3, RPL30, RPL34, RPL36, RPL37, RPL37A, RPL4, RPL7A, RPS9, RPLP1, RPLP2, RPS10, RPS16, RPS19, RPS27, RPS5, RPS8, RPS9, SLC25A6, SOX6, STS, TKT or any combination thereof. In further embodiments, a target comprises ABCA6, ANKH, CARD16, CEP192, DDX60, DNASE1L1, DYNC2H1, EDN1, HBEGF, HOMER1, INHBA, KDM6B, LENG9, MATN3, MYO19, NRG1, PABPC4, PLD1, PLEKHA5, RASD1, SGIP1, SLC2A12, SNRPA, TENT, TOP2A, TRERF1 or any combination thereof. In still further embodiments, a target comprises C9orf85, EIF3E, GAPDH, HNRNPA1, MRPL45 or any combination thereof. In yet further embodiments, a target comprises CES1, LAMPS, PAQR5 PLEKHG1, ROBO2, TOMM7 or any combination thereof. In more embodiments, a target comprises AOX1, ARPC1A, AURKA, C12orf57, GPSM2, KITLG, MAP3K5, MURC, NOV, RPL14, SLC15A3, SOX5, ZNF608 or any combination thereof.

In certain embodiments, a target comprises ANKDD1A, ATP5G2, CHCHD10, DNAJC22, FGF5, FMO2, GNB2L1, GLTSCR2, HIGD2A, IFIH, MTUS1, RPS18, RPL18A, RPL31, RPL35A, RPL5, RPS18, RPS29, SPATA6 or any combination thereof. In further embodiments, a target comprises RPS6KA5, BIVM, ACTA1, KRT7, AMIGO3, CCDC102B, RPL10, TAF1D, ADAMTS5, LAMB3, CLCF1, EPB41L1, GAS2L3, IRAK3, LPAR3, PCBP2, PDE7B, TMTC1, FRMD4A, GDF10, OBSCN, PLEKHA6, SHC3 or any combination thereof. In still further embodiments, a target comprises THBS3, RPS28, EEF1A1, EEF2, EIF4B, FMO2, RAB3D, CIT, PDE4B, PPARG, SLC40A1, ASPM, CA5B, GLCCI1, GLTSCR2, P2RX7, STAMBPL1 or any combination thereof.

In some aspects, the instant disclosure provides a method of identifying a subject as a candidate for preventing, treating or ameliorating a fibrotic disease with a therapeutic agent, the method comprising (a) determining a first translational profile for a plurality of genes in a sample from a subject having or suspected of having a fibrotic disease; (b) determining a second translational profile for a plurality of genes in a control sample, wherein the control sample is from a subject known to respond to the therapeutic agent and wherein the sample has not been contacted with the therapeutic agent; and (c) identifying the subject as a candidate for treating fibrotic disease with the therapeutic agent when the translational profile for one or more genes selected from, for example, EIF2AK1, EIF2AK2, EIF2AK3, EIF2AK4, EIF5A, mTOR, DOHH, DHPS, HDAC6, SIRT2, RSK, AHCY, or FIG. 7, Table 1, Table 3A, Table 3B, Table 5 or Table 7 of the first translational profile are comparable to the translational profile of the corresponding genes in the second translational profile. In a related aspect, the instant disclosure provides a method for preventing, treating or ameliorating a fibrotic disease, comprising administering a therapeutic agent to a subject identified according to the method of identifying a subject as a candidate for preventing, treating or ameliorating a fibrotic disease, thereby treating the subject. In certain embodiments, a method of identifying a subject as a candidate for preventing, treating or ameliorating a fibrotic disease with a therapeutic agent comprises using any one or more of the combinations of modulators described herein.

In any of the aforementioned embodiments, the fibrotic disease or disorder may be due to injury or may be idiopathic. In some embodiments, the injury is an ischemic event or due to exposure to radiation, a chemical, or an infectious agent. In any of these embodiments, a specific modulator for an eIF2 pathway protein or regulator (such as EIF2AK1, EIF2AK2, EIF2AK3 or EIF2AK4), a specific modulator of an eIF4F complex or component thereof (such as eIF4A or eIF4E), a specific modulator of an eIF5A or a regulator of eIF5A (such as DHPS or DOHH), or any combination thereof is administered before or after a fibrotic lesion has developed in the subject. In further embodiments, a modulator specific for a target of interest is formulated with a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent, carrier or excipient.

In certain embodiments, the present disclosure provides methods for treating fibrotic disorders or for inhibiting transdifferentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts by administering a modulator of a first target combined with one or more modulators of one or more different targets (e.g., two, three, four, five, or six targets). In some embodiments, the first target is a first translation machinery element and the second target is a second a translation machinery element; or the first target is a translation machinery element and the second target is a regulator of a translation machinery element; or the first target is a regulator of a first translation machinery element and the second target is a regulator of a second translation machinery element; or the first target is a first regulator of a first translation machinery element and the second target is a second regulator of the first translation machinery element, or any combination thereof. Any of the combination embodiments described herein may include one or more modulators that are specific for the named target.

Exemplary methods for treating fibrotic disorders or for inhibiting transdifferentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts or for reducing the presence of myofibroblasts or for inhibiting or blocking the production and/or secretion of organ damaging proteins from myofibroblasts, or any combination thereof, comprise administering combinations of two or more modulators (for the same or different targets) of this disclosure. In any of these embodiments, a modulator may be specific for its target.

Representative combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein include (1) a modulator of eIF4A and a modulator of eIF2A, (2) a modulator of eIF4A and a modulator of eIF2AK1, (3) a modulator of eIF4A and a modulator of eIF5A, (4) a modulator of eIF4A and a modulator of DHPS, (5) a modulator of eIF4A and a modulator of DOHH, (6) a modulator of eIF4A and a modulator of eEF1A1, (7) a modulator of eIF4A and a modulator of eEF2, (8) a modulator of eIF4A and a modulator of eEF2K, (9) a modulator of eIF4A and a modulator of eIF4B, (10) a modulator of eIF4A and a modulator of eIF4G, or (11) any combination thereof.

In further embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of eIF4E and a modulator of eIF2A, (2) a modulator of eIF4E and a modulator of eIF2AK1, (3) a modulator of eIF4E and a modulator of eIF5A, (4) a modulator of eIF4E and a modulator of DHPS, (5) a modulator of eIF4E and a modulator of DOHH, (6) a modulator of eIF4E and a modulator of eEF1A1, (7) a modulator of eIF4E and a modulator of eEF2, (8) a modulator of eIF4E and a modulator of eEF2K, (9) a modulator of eIF4E and a modulator of eIF4B, (10) a modulator of eIF4E and a modulator of eIF4G, or (11) any combination thereof.

In other embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of eIF4G and a modulator of eIF2A, (2) a modulator of eIF4G and a modulator of eIF2AK1, (3) a modulator of eIF4G and a modulator of eIF5A, (4) a modulator of eIF4G and a modulator of DHPS, (5) a modulator of eIF4G and a modulator of DOHH, (6) a modulator of eIF4G and a modulator of eEF1A1, (7) a modulator of eIF4G and a modulator of eEF2, (8) a modulator of eIF4G and a modulator of eEF2K, (9) a modulator of eIF4G and a modulator of eIF4B, or (10) any combination thereof.

In still further embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of eIF4B and a modulator of eIF2A, (2) a modulator of eIF4B and a modulator of eIF2AK1, (3) a modulator of eIF4B and a modulator of eIF5A, (4) a modulator of eIF4B and a modulator of DHPS, (5) a modulator of eIF4B and a modulator of DOHH, (6) a modulator of eIF4B and a modulator of eEF1A1, (7) a modulator of eIF4B and a modulator of eEF2, (8) a modulator of eIF4B and a modulator of eEF2K, or (9) any combination thereof.

In further embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of eIF2A and a modulator of eIF2AK, (2) a modulator of eIF2A and a modulator of eIF5A, (3) a modulator of eIF2A and a modulator of DHPS, (4) a modulator of eIF2A and a modulator of DOHH, (5) a modulator of eIF2A and a modulator of eEF1A1, (6) a modulator of eIF2A and a modulator of eEF2, (7) a modulator of eIF2A and a modulator of eEF2K, or (8) any combination thereof.

In yet further embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of eIF2AK and a modulator of eIF5A, (2) a modulator of eIF2AK and a modulator of DHPS, (3) a modulator of eIF2AK and a modulator of DOHH, (4) a modulator of eIF2AK and a modulator of eEF1A1, (5) a modulator of eIF2AK and a modulator of eEF2, (6) a modulator of eIF2AK and a modulator of eEF2K, or (7) any combination thereof.

In certain embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of DHPS and a modulator of eIF5A, (2) a modulator of DHPS and a modulator of DOHH, (3) a modulator of DHPS and a modulator of eEF1A1, (4) a modulator of DHPS and a modulator of eEF2, (5) a modulator of DHPS and a modulator of eEF2K, or (6) any combination thereof.

In more embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of DOHH and a modulator of eIF5A, (2) a modulator of DOHH and a modulator of eEF1A1, (3) a modulator of DOHH and a modulator of eEF2, (4) a modulator of DOHH and a modulator of eEF2K, or (5) any combination thereof.

In still more embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of eIF5A and a modulator of eEF1A1, (2) a modulator of eIF5A and a modulator of eEF2, (3) a modulator of eIF5A and a modulator of eEF2K, or (4) any combination thereof.

More exemplary methods for treating fibrotic disorders or for inhibiting transdifferentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts or for reducing the presence of myofibroblasts or for inhibiting or blocking the production and/or secretion of organ damaging proteins from myofibroblasts, or any combination thereof, comprise administering combinations of modulators targeting at least two different regulators of translation machinery elements, such as (1) a modulator of eIF2AK1 and a modulator of a PI3K, (2) a modulator of eIF2AK1 and a modulator of an AKT, (3) a modulator of eIF2AK1 and a modulator of mTOR, (4) a modulator of eIF2AK1 and a modulator of a S6K70, (5) a modulator of eIF2AK1 and a modulator of an MNK, (6) a modulator of eIF2AK1 and a modulator of a MEK1/2, (7) a modulator of eIF2AK1 and a modulator of an ERK, (8) a modulator of eIF2AK1 and a modulator of a RSK90, (9) a modulator of eIF2AK1 and a modulator of eEF2K, or (10) any combination thereof.

In further embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of eIF2AK2 and a modulator of a PI3K, (2) a modulator of eIF2AK2 and a modulator of an AKT, (3) a modulator of eIF2AK2 and a modulator of mTOR, (4) a modulator of eIF2AK2 and a modulator of a S6K70, (5) a modulator of eIF2AK2 and a modulator of an MNK, (6) a modulator of eIF2AK2 and a modulator of a MEK1/2, (7) a modulator of eIF2AK2 and a modulator of an ERK, (8) a modulator of eIF2AK2 and a modulator of a RSK90, (9) a modulator of eIF2AK2 and a modulator of eEF2K, or (10) any combination thereof.

In still further embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of eIF2AK3 and a modulator of a PI3K, (2) a modulator of eIF2AK3 and a modulator of an AKT, (3) a modulator of eIF2AK3 and a modulator of mTOR, (4) a modulator of eIF2AK3 and a modulator of a S6K70, (5) a modulator of eIF2AK3 and a modulator of an MNK, (6) a modulator of eIF2AK3 and a modulator of a MEK1/2, (7) a modulator of eIF2AK3 and a modulator of an ERK, (8) a modulator of eIF2AK3 and a modulator of a RSK90, (9) a modulator of eIF2AK3 and a modulator of eEF2K, or (10) any combination thereof.

In yet further embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of eIF2AK4 and a modulator of a PI3K, (2) a modulator of eIF2AK4 and a modulator of an AKT, (3) a modulator of eIF2AK4 and a modulator of mTOR, (4) a modulator of eIF2AK4 and a modulator of a S6K70, (5) a modulator of eIF2AK4 and a modulator of an MNK, (6) a modulator of eIF2AK4 and a modulator of a MEK1/2, (7) a modulator of eIF2AK4 and a modulator of an ERK, (8) a modulator of eIF2AK4 and a modulator of a RSK90, (9) a modulator of eIF2AK4 and a modulator of eEF2K, or (10) any combination thereof.

In more embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of GADD34 and a modulator of a PI3K, (2) a modulator of GADD34 and a modulator of an AKT, (3) a modulator of GADD34 and a modulator of mTOR, (4) a modulator of GADD34 and a modulator of a S6K70, (5) a modulator of GADD34 and a modulator of an MNK, (6) a modulator of GADD34 and a modulator of a MEK1/2, (7) a modulator of GADD34 and a modulator of an ERK, (8) a modulator of GADD34 and a modulator of a RSK90, (9) a modulator of GADD34 and a modulator of eEF2K, or (10) any combination thereof.

In other embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of GSK3β and a modulator of a PI3K, (2) a modulator of GSK3β and a modulator of an AKT, (3) a modulator of GSK3β and a modulator of mTOR, (4) a modulator of GSK3β and a modulator of a S6K70, (5) a modulator of GSK3β and a modulator of an MNK, (6) a modulator of GSK3β and a modulator of a MEK1/2, (7) a modulator of GSK3β and a modulator of an ERK, (8) a modulator of GSK3β and a modulator of a RSK90, (9) a modulator of GSK3β and a modulator of eEF2K, or (10) any combination thereof.

In certain embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of a PI3K and a modulator of a MNK, (2) a modulator of a PI3K and a modulator of DHPS, (3) a modulator of a PI3K and a modulator of DOHH, (4) a modulator of a PI3K and a modulator of a MEK1/2, (5) a modulator of a PI3K and a modulator of an ERK, (6) a modulator of a PI3K and a modulator of a RSK90, (7) a modulator of a PI3K and a modulator of eEF2K, or (8) any combination thereof.

In other embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of an AKT and a modulator of a MNK, (2) a modulator of an AKT and a modulator of DHPS, (3) a modulator of an AKT and a modulator of DOHH, (4) a modulator of an AKT and a modulator of a MEK1/2, (5) a modulator of an AKT and a modulator of an ERK, (6) a modulator of an AKT and a modulator of a RSK90, (7) a modulator of an AKT and a modulator of eEF2K, or (8) any combination thereof.

In still other embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of mTOR and a modulator of a MNK, (2) a modulator of mTOR and a modulator of DHPS, (3) a modulator of mTOR and a modulator of DOHH, (4) a modulator of mTOR and a modulator of a MEK1/2, (5) a modulator of mTOR and a modulator of an ERK, (6) a modulator of mTOR and a modulator of a RSK90, (7) a modulator of mTOR and a modulator of eEF2K, or (8) any combination thereof.

In yet other embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of S6K70 and a modulator of a MNK, (2) a modulator of S6K70 and a modulator of DHPS, (3) a modulator of S6K70 and a modulator of DOHH, (4) a modulator of S6K70 and a modulator of a MEK1/2, (5) a modulator of S6K70 and a modulator of an ERK, (6) a modulator of S6K70 and a modulator of a RSK90, (7) a modulator of S6K70 and a modulator of eEF2K, or (8) any combination thereof.

In further embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of a MNK and a modulator of DHPS, (2) a modulator of a MNK and a modulator of DOHH, (3) a modulator of a MNK and a modulator of a MEK1/2, (4) a modulator of a MNK and a modulator of an ERK, (5) a modulator of a MNK and a modulator of a RSK90, (6) a modulator of a MNK and a modulator of eEF2K, or (7) any combination thereof.

In other embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of DHPS and a modulator of a MEK1/2, (2) a modulator of DHPS and a modulator of an ERK, (3) a modulator of DHPS and a modulator of a RSK90, (4) a modulator of DHPS and a modulator of eEF2K, or (5) any combination thereof.

In more embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise administering (1) a modulator of DOHH and a modulator of a MEK1/2, (2) a modulator of DOHH and a modulator of an ERK, (3) a modulator of DOHH and a modulator of a RSK90, (4) a modulator of DOHH and a modulator of eEF2K, or (5) any combination thereof.

In even more embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise administering (1) a modulator of eEF2K and a modulator of a MEK1/2, (2) a modulator of eEF2K and a modulator of an ERK, (3) a modulator of eEF2K and a modulator of a RSK90, or (4) any combination thereof.

Further exemplary methods for treating fibrotic disorders or for inhibiting transdifferentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts or for reducing the presence of myofibroblasts or for inhibiting or blocking the production and/or secretion of organ damaging proteins from myofibroblasts, or any combination thereof, comprise administering combinations of modulators targeting at least two different translation machinery elements, such as (1) a modulator of an eIF4A and a modulator of a eEF1, (2) a modulator of an eIF4A and a modulator of an eEF2, (3) a modulator of an eIF4A and a modulator of eIF5A, or (4) any combination thereof.

In certain embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of an eIF4E and a modulator of a eEF1, (2) a modulator of an eIF4E and a modulator of an eEF2, (3) a modulator of an eIF4E and a modulator of eIF5A, or (4) any combination thereof.

In further embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of an eIF5A and a modulator of a eEF1, (2) a modulator of an eIF5A and a modulator of an eEF2, or (3) any combination thereof.

Additional exemplary methods for treating fibrotic disorders or for inhibiting transdifferentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts or for reducing the presence of myofibroblasts or for inhibiting or blocking the production and/or secretion of organ damaging proteins from myofibroblasts, or any combination thereof, comprise administering combinations of modulators targeting at least one translation machinery element and at least one regulator of translation machinery elements, such as (1) a modulator of eIF2AK1 and a modulator of an eIF4A, (2) a modulator of eIF2AK1 and a modulator of an eIF4E, (3) a modulator of eIF2AK1 and a modulator of eEF1, (4) a modulator of eIF2AK1 and a modulator of a eEF2, (5) a modulator of eIF2AK1 and a modulator of an eIF5A, or (6) any combination thereof.

In certain embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of eIF2AK2 and a modulator of an eIF4A, (2) a modulator of eIF2AK2 and a modulator of an eIF4E, (3) a modulator of eIF2AK2 and a modulator of eEF1, (4) a modulator of eIF2AK2 and a modulator of a eEF2, (5) a modulator of eIF2AK2 and a modulator of an eIF5A, or (6) any combination thereof.

In further embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of eIF2AK3 and a modulator of an eIF4A, (2) a modulator of eIF2AK3 and a modulator of an eIF4E, (3) a modulator of eIF2AK3 and a modulator of eEF1, (4) a modulator of eIF2AK3 and a modulator of a eEF2, (5) a modulator of eIF2AK3 and a modulator of an eIF5A, or (6) any combination thereof.

In more embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of eIF2AK4 and a modulator of an eIF4A, (2) a modulator of eIF2AK4 and a modulator of an eIF4E, (3) a modulator of eIF2AK4 and a modulator of eEF1, (4) a modulator of eIF2AK4 and a modulator of a eEF2, (5) a modulator of eIF2AK4 and a modulator of an eIF5A, or (6) any combination thereof.

In other embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of GADD34 and a modulator of an eIF4A, (2) a modulator of GADD34 and a modulator of an eIF4E, (3) a modulator of GADD34 and a modulator of eEF1, (4) a modulator of GADD34 and a modulator of a eEF2, (5) a modulator of GADD34 and a modulator of an eIF5A, or (6) any combination thereof.

In still more embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of GSK3β and a modulator of an eIF4A, (2) a modulator of GSK3β and a modulator of an eIF4E, (3) a modulator of GSK3β and a modulator of eEF1, (4) a modulator of GSK3β and a modulator of a eEF2, (5) a modulator of GSK3β and a modulator of an eIF5A, or (6) any combination thereof.

In certain embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of a PI3K and a modulator of an eIF4A, (2) a modulator of a PI3K and a modulator of an eIF4E, (3) a modulator of a PI3K and a modulator of eEF1, (4) a modulator of a PI3K and a modulator of a eEF2, (5) a modulator of a PI3K and a modulator of an eIF5A, or (6) any combination thereof.

In further embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of an AKT and a modulator of an eIF4A, (2) a modulator of an AKT and a modulator of an eIF4E, (3) a modulator of an AKT and a modulator of eEF1, (4) a modulator of an AKT and a modulator of a eEF2, (5) a modulator of an AKT and a modulator of an eIF5A, or (6) any combination thereof.

In more embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of mTOR and a modulator of an eIF4A, (2) a modulator of mTOR and a modulator of an eIF4E, (3) a modulator of mTOR and a modulator of eEF1, (4) a modulator of mTOR and a modulator of a eEF2, (5) a modulator of mTOR and a modulator of an eIF5A, or (6) any combination thereof.

In more embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of S6K70 and a modulator of an eIF4A, (2) a modulator of S6K70 and a modulator of an eIF4E, (3) a modulator of S6K70 and a modulator of eEF1, (4) a modulator of S6K70 and a modulator of a eEF2, (5) a modulator of S6K70 and a modulator of an eIF5A, or (6) any combination thereof.

In certain embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of a MNK and a modulator of an eIF4A, (2) a modulator of a MNK and a modulator of an eIF4E, (3) a modulator of a MNK and a modulator of eEF1, (4) a modulator of a MNK and a modulator of a eEF2, (5) a modulator of a MNK and a modulator of an eIF5A, or (6) any combination thereof.

In certain embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of a MEK1/2 and a modulator of an eIF4A, (2) a modulator of a MEK1/2 and a modulator of an eIF4E, (3) a modulator of a MEK1/2 and a modulator of eEF1, (4) a modulator of a MEK1/2 and a modulator of a eEF2, (5) a modulator of a MEK1/2 and a modulator of an eIF5A, or (6) any combination thereof.

In further embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of an ERK and a modulator of an eIF4A, (2) a modulator of an ERK and a modulator of an eIF4E, (3) a modulator of an ERK and a modulator of eEF1, (4) a modulator of an ERK and a modulator of a eEF2, (5) a modulator of an ERK and a modulator of an eIF5A, or (6) any combination thereof.

In more embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of RSK90 and a modulator of an eIF4A, (2) a modulator of RSK90 and a modulator of an eIF4E, (3) a modulator of RSK90 and a modulator of eEF1, (4) a modulator of RSK90 and a modulator of a eEF2, (5) a modulator of RSK90 and a modulator of an eIF5A, or (6) any combination thereof.

In even more embodiments, combinations of modulators for use in the methods described herein comprise (1) a modulator of eEF2K and a modulator of an eIF4A, (2) a modulator of eEF2K and a modulator of an eIF4E, (3) a modulator of eEF2K and a modulator of an eIF5A, or (4) any combination thereof.

In any of the combination therapies described herein, a combination of modulators can be administered serially, simultaneously, or concurrently. When administering serially, a first modulator or pharmaceutical composition thereof is formulated in a separate composition from a second (or third, etc.) modulator or pharmaceutical composition thereof. When administering simultaneously or concurrently, a first and second (or third, etc.) modulator may be formulated in separate compositions or formulated in a single composition. In any of these embodiments, the single or combination modulator therapies can be administered as a single dose unit or administered as a single dose unit a plurality of times (daily, weekly, biweekly, monthly, biannually, annually, etc., or any combination thereof).

In certain embodiments, a combination therapy described herein is used in a method for treating a fibrotic disorder or disease. In further embodiments, a combination therapy described herein is used in a method for inhibiting transdifferentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts. In still further embodiments, a combination therapy described herein is used in a method for reducing the presence of myofibroblasts. In yet further embodiments, a combination therapy described herein is used in a method for inhibiting or blocking the production and/or secretion of organ damaging proteins from myofibroblasts.

In certain embodiments, a combination of modulators described herein is used in a method of identifying a subject as a candidate for preventing, treating or ameliorating a fibrotic disease with a therapeutic agent.

In still further embodiments, a modulator of a target of interest or any of the aforementioned combinations, which may be specific for their target, are administered in combination with one or more adjunctive therapeutic agents, such as angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor, nintedanib (BIBF-1120), STX-100, QAX576, CNTO-888, SD-208, SB-525334, GC1008, BMS-986202, AM152, lebrikizumab, tralokinumab, SAR156597, PRM-151, simtuzumab (AB0024, GS-6624), GSK2126458, FG-3019, captopril, genistein, EUK-207, silvestrol or derivatives thereof, pateamine A or derivatives thereof, hippuristanol, or pirfenidone, for the treatment of, for example, a fibrotic disorder (such as idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis).

In any of the aforementioned embodiments, the fibrotic disease or disorder is a pulmonary fibrosis, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, cystic fibrosis, liver fibrosis, cardiac fibrosis, endomyocardial fibrosis, atrial fibrosis, mediastinal fibrosis, myelofibrosis, retroperitoneal fibrosis, chronic kidney disease, nephrogenic systemic fibrosis, Chron's disease, hypertrophic scarring, keloid, scleroderma, organ transplant-associated fibrosis, ischemia-associated fibrosis, or a combination thereof. In any of the aforementioned embodiments, the subject is a human.

Subjects in need of administration of therapeutic agents as described herein include subjects at high risk for developing a fibrotic disorder as well as subjects presenting with an existing fibrotic disorder. A subject may be at high risk for developing a fibrotic disorder if the subject has experienced an injury, for example: exposure to radiation, environmental or occupational pollutant, chemical, irritant, certain medications, infectious agent; having a certain genetic mutation; chronic autoimmune response; or an ischemic event. Subjects suffering from or suspected of having a fibrotic disorder can be identified using methods as described herein. A subject may be any organism capable of developing a fibrotic disorder, such as humans, pets, livestock, show animals, zoo specimens, or other animals. For example, a subject may be a human, a non-human primate, dog, cat, rabbit, horse, or the like.

The therapeutic agents or pharmaceutical compositions that treat or reduce the risk of developing a fibrotic disorder provided herein are administered to a subject who has or is at risk of developing a fibrotic disorder at a therapeutically effective amount or dose. Such a dose may be determined or adjusted depending on various factors including the specific therapeutic agents or pharmaceutical compositions, the routes of administration, the subject's condition, that is, stage of the disease, severity of symptoms caused by the disease, general health status, as well as age, gender, and weight, and other factors apparent to a person skilled in the medical art. Similarly, the dose of the therapeutic for treating a disease or disorder may be determined according to parameters understood by a person skilled in the medical art. When referring to a combination, a therapeutically effective dose refers to combined amounts of the active ingredients that result in the therapeutic effect, whether administered serially or simultaneously (in the same formulation or concurrently in separate formulations). Optimal doses may generally be determined using experimental models and/or clinical trials. Design and execution of pre-clinical and clinical studies for a therapeutic agent (including when administered for prophylactic benefit) described herein are well within the skill of a person skilled in the relevant art.

Generally, the therapeutic agent is administered at a therapeutically effective amount or dose. A therapeutically effective amount or dose will vary according to several factors, including the chosen route of administration, formulation of the composition, patient response, severity of the condition, the subject's weight, and the judgment of the prescribing physician. The dosage can be increased or decreased over time, as required by an individual patient. In certain instances, a patient initially is given a low dose, which is then increased to an efficacious dosage tolerable to the patient. Determination of an effective amount is well within the capability of those skilled in the art.

The route of administration of a therapeutic agent can be oral, intraperitoneal, transdermal, subcutaneous, by intravenous or intramuscular injection, by inhalation, topical, intralesional, infusion; liposome-mediated delivery; topical, intrathecal, gingival pocket, rectal, intrabronchial, nasal, transmucosal, intestinal, ocular or otic delivery, or any other methods known in the art.

In some embodiments, a therapeutic agent is formulated as a pharmaceutical composition. In some embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition incorporates particulate forms, protective coatings, protease inhibitors, or permeation enhancers for various routes of administration, including parenteral, pulmonary, nasal and oral. The pharmaceutical compositions can be administered in a variety of unit dosage forms depending upon the method/mode of administration. Suitable unit dosage forms, including powders, tablets, pills, capsules, lozenges, suppositories, patches, nasal sprays, injectables, implantable sustained-release formulations, etc.

In some embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition comprises an acceptable diluent, carrier or excipient. A pharmaceutically acceptable carrier includes any solvent, dispersion media, or coating that are physiologically compatible and that preferably do not interfere with or otherwise inhibit the activity of the therapeutic agent. Preferably, a carrier is suitable for intravenous, intramuscular, oral, intraperitoneal, transdermal, topical, or subcutaneous administration. Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers can contain one or more physiologically acceptable compound(s) that act, for example, to stabilize the composition or to increase or decrease the absorption of the active agent(s). Physiologically acceptable compounds can include, for example, carbohydrates, such as glucose, sucrose, or dextrans, antioxidants, such as ascorbic acid or glutathione, chelating agents, low molecular weight proteins, compositions that reduce the clearance or hydrolysis of the active agents, or excipients or other stabilizers and/or buffers. Other pharmaceutically acceptable carriers and their formulations are well-known and generally described in, for example, Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy, 21st Edition, Philadelphia, Pa. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2005. Various pharmaceutically acceptable excipients are well-known in the art and can be found in, for example, Handbook of Pharmaceutical Excipients (5^(th) ed., Ed. Rowe et al., Pharmaceutical Press, Washington, D.C.).

EXAMPLES Example 1 Effect of mTOR Inhibition on Fibrotic Disease Development

TGFβ-mediated transformation of fibroblasts into fibrotic myofibroblasts is well-established as an essential step in fibroplasia, a key component of many fibrotic disorders (Blobe et al., N. Engl. J. Med. 342:1350, 2000; Border and Noble, N. Engl. J. Med. 331:1286, 1994). This TGFβ-mediated transformation of fibroblasts was used as a model for examining fibrotic disorders.

Briefly, normal human lung fibroblasts (Lonza #CC-2512; cell passage numbers 2 through 5 were used for all experiments) were seeded (Day 0) and cultured in Dulbecco's modified Eagle medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), penicillin, streptomycin and glutamax (Invitrogen) at 37° C. in a humidified incubator with 5% CO₂ overnight. On Day 1, cells were harvested, washed with phosphate buffered saline (PBS), and then incubated for 48 hours in fresh serum-free DMEM supplemented with penicillin, streptomycin, and glutamax. On Day 3, cells were harvested, resuspended in fresh serum-free DMEM containing PP242 (10, 2.5, 0.625, 0.156, 0.039, 0.01 or 0.002 μM) and 10 ng/ml TGFβ, and cultured for 24 hours. Controls included untreated cells, cells treated with TGFβ only, and cells treated with PP242 only.

After this 24 hour incubation, procollagen type 1 levels were measured by collecting culture media, centrifuging to pellet cellular debris, and stored at −80° C. Procollagen Type 1 C-Peptide (PIPC) was quantified using the (PIP) EIA kit (Clontech, Cat. No. MK101) according to manufacturer's instructions. The TGFβ-treated fibroblasts of this example were examined by ribosomal profiling (about 6×10⁶ cells/10 cm plate) and western blot analysis (about 1×10⁶ cells/well of a 6-well plate).

Results

Transformation of fibroblasts into fibrotic myofibroblasts by treatment with TGFβ for 24 hours was accompanied by an approximately 7-fold increase in procollagen production, while treatment with PP242 was able to block this increase (EC₅₀ of about 0.2 μM) (FIG. 1). Expression of TGFβ induced myofibroblast differentiation marker, α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), was also analyzed by Western blot analysis (see Example 3; FIG. 2). After 24 hours of TGFβ stimulation, increased α-SMA protein levels were detectable, while the level of β-actin did not change. As with procollagen, co-incubation of cells with TGF-β and PP242 caused a reduction of the α-SMA protein level in a dose dependent manner.

Conclusion

Co-administration of TGF-β with mTOR inhibitor PP242 reverses or prevents the changes observed in a fibrotic disorder-related pathway as evidenced by an inhibition of increased production of fibrotic disorder biomarker proteins, type 1 procollagen and α-SMA (which are both hallmarks of TGFβ-mediated fibroblast transformation into myofibroblasts).

Example 2 Phosphorylation of Protein Translation Components: Effect of mTOR Inhibition on Fibrotic Disease Development

TGFβ-dependent activation of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR and ERK pathways were also examined by western blot analysis (about 1×10⁶ cells/well from a 6-well plate). Briefly, cells were washed with PBS and lysed in 1× cell lysis buffer (Cell Signaling Technology, Inc., Danvers, Mass.) for 15 minutes at 4° C. Lysates were briefly sonicated, clarified by centrifugation for 15 minutes at 14,000 rpm, and then supernatants were collected. Protein concentration in the soluble fraction was determined by BCA protein assay (Thermo Scientific, Rockford, Ill.). Samples of protein (20 μg) were resolved on 4-20% Bis-Tris gradient gel (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) and transferred to nitrocellulose membrane. The resulting blots were blocked for 1 hour at room temperature with Odyssey blocking solution (LI-COR) and then incubated with primary antibodies at 4° C. overnight. The following day, each blot was washed three times for 10 minutes in TBST, and then incubated with goat anti-rabbit fluorescent conjugated secondary antibody (IRDye 800 CW at 1:20,000; LI-COR) for 1 hour at room temperature. The blots were washed and scanned, and then specific proteins were detected by using the LI-COR Odyssey infrared imager. The following antibodies were used at 1:1000 dilution: anti-α-actin (Sigma #A2547), anti-phospho-4EBP(Ser65), anti-phospho-rpS6(Ser235/236)(#4858), anti-phospho-ERK1/2(Thr202/Tyr204)(#4370), anti-phospho-p70S6K(Thr421/Ser424)(#9204), anti-phospho-pAKT(Ser473), anti-phospho-MNK(Thr197/202), and anti-β-actin (#4970). Unless otherwise indicated, the antibodies were from Cell Signaling Technology, Inc. (Danvers, Mass.).

Results

FIG. 2 shows that phosphorylation of AKT, 4EBP, S6K, and S6 of the mTOR pathway was strongly stimulated in fibroblasts treated with TGFβ, whereas only a moderate increase in ERK phosphorylation was observed. Co-incubation of cells with mTOR inhibitor PP242 (0.625 μM) was sufficient to abolish TGFβ-dependent increases in phosphorylation of AKT, 4EBP, S6K, and S6, as well as causing a decrease in α-SMA to pretreatment levels (FIG. 2).

Conclusion

Co-administration of TGFβ with mTOR inhibitor PP242 reverses or prevents the changes observed in a fibrotic disorder-related pathway (i.e., normalizes the translational efficiencies of the genes) and inhibits increased production of fibrotic disorder biomarker proteins, type 1 procollagen and α-smooth muscle actin (which are both hallmarks of TGFβ-mediated fibroblast transformation to myofibroblasts).

Example 3 Translational Profiling: Effect of mTOR Inhibition on Fibrotic Disease Development

Ribosomal profiling allows for measurement of changes in transcription and translation on a genome-wide basis accompanying TGFβ-dependent transformation of fibroblasts to myofibroblasts. Ribosomal profiles of the TGFβ-treated fibroblasts from Example 1 (about 6×10⁶ cells/10 cm plate) were prepared and analyzed for changes in translational efficiencies with respect to potential disease-associated cellular changes accompanying this TGFβ-induced transformation.

Briefly, cells were washed with cold PBS supplemented with cycloheximide and lysed with 1× mammalian cell lysis buffer for 10 minutes on ice. Lysates were clarified by centrifugation for 10 minutes at 14,000 rpm and supernatants were collected. Cell lysates were processed to generate ribosomal protected fragments and total mRNA according to the instructions included with the ARTseq Ribosome Profiling Kit (Illumina, San Diego, Calif.). Sequencing of total RNA (RNA) and of ribosome-protected fragments of RNA (RPF) was carried out using RNA-Seq methodology according to the manufacturer's instructions (Illumina). To analyze the ribosomal profiles, RNA-Seq reads were processed with tools from the FASTX-Toolkit (fastq_quality_trimmer, fastx_clipper and fastx_trimmer). Unprocessed and processed reads were evaluated for a variety of quality measures using FastQC, and processed reads were mapped to the human genome using TopHat (see, e.g., Trapnell et al., Bioinformatics 25:1105, 2009). Gene-by-gene assessment of the number of fragments strictly and uniquely mapping to the coding region of each gene was conducted using HTSeq-count, a component of the HTSeq package. Differential analyses of the transforming effect of TGFβ on fibroblasts and the effect of PP242 treatment on this transformation were carried out with the software packages DESeq for transcription (RNA counts) and translational rate (RPF counts) and BABEL for translational efficiency based upon ribosomal occupancy as a function of RNA level (RNA and RPF counts). Genes with low counts in either RPF or RNA were excluded from differential analyses. Pathway and network analyses of differential data were conducted using Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA).

Results

Genes identified in TGFβ treated fibroblasts by Differential Expression Analysis (differential mRNA amount (transcription), differential translational rate (RPF counts) and differential translational efficiency (ratio of translational rate to mRNA amount)) are listed in Tables 1-3 (Table 3A shows genes with an altered translational efficiency identified after one profiling experiment and Table 3B has a refined gene list based on five replicate profiling experiments). These three gene signatures were analyzed for pathway and network connections using Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA).

TABLE 1 Gene Signature with Altered Translation Rate log₂FC RPF(M)/ RPF ENSEMBL ID HGNC ID RPF(Ctrl) p-value ENSG00000049540 ELN 5.36941753 1.08E−07 ENSG00000163661 PTX3 −5.3307069 1.41E−07 ENSG00000107796 ACTA2 5.26064763 1.67E−07 ENSG00000146674 IGFBP3 4.82169249 1.06E−06 ENSG00000123610 TNFAIP6 4.75270158 1.41E−06 ENSG00000106366 SERPINE1 4.33934001 6.65E−06 ENSG00000171793 CTPS 4.09973744 2.08E−05 ENSG00000138735 PDE5A −4.0235025 2.74E−05 ENSG00000140416 TPM1 3.97312305 2.76E−05 ENSG00000148848 ADAM12 3.93485546 3.60E−05 ENSG00000076706 MCAM 4.03592992 3.84E−05 ENSG00000139211 AMIGO2 3.93283643 4.20E−05 ENSG00000130707 ASS1 3.94677625 5.20E−05 ENSG00000103489 XYLT1 3.66194114 0.0001064 ENSG00000149591 TAGLN 3.60417531 0.00010993 ENSG00000135074 ADAM19 3.65751476 0.00011063 ENSG00000177283 FZD8 3.66199763 0.00012173 ENSG00000197442 MAP3K5 −3.6700003 0.00015186 ENSG00000162591 MEGF6 3.52392664 0.00018903 ENSG00000170558 CDH2 3.37710278 0.00027648 ENSG00000211455 STK38L 3.35942032 0.00033916 ENSG00000164761 TNFRSF11B −3.3013119 0.0003522 ENSG00000127863 TNFRSF19 −3.3472307 0.00036218 ENSG00000006016 CRLF1 3.35876314 0.0003716 ENSG00000187498 COL4A1 3.22671553 0.00043313 ENSG00000128965 CHAC1 3.32922215 0.00043675 ENSG00000172986 GXYLT2 3.34594516 0.0004446 ENSG00000113140 SPARC 3.18391733 0.00050358 ENSG00000189184 PCDH18 −3.2023222 0.00052431 ENSG00000099860 GADD45B 3.15900734 0.0007182 ENSG00000197321 SVIL −3.1352953 0.00074287 ENSG00000176170 SPHK1 3.17785195 0.00083387 ENSG00000079308 TNS1 3.0455728 0.00083771 ENSG00000115884 SDC1 3.08392695 0.00087241 ENSG00000137809 ITGA11 3.01124359 0.00103089 ENSG00000135269 TES 3.05095571 0.00108443 ENSG00000106211 HSPB1 2.94411799 0.00117519 ENSG00000122786 CALD1 2.92932598 0.00122331 ENSG00000137124 ALDH1B1 2.99287373 0.0012512 ENSG00000107957 SH3PXD2A 2.9304952 0.00130719 ENSG00000206190 ATP10A 3.00335812 0.00131835 ENSG00000163453 IGFBP7 2.8797874 0.00145005 ENSG00000137331 IER3 2.83980944 0.00184245 ENSG00000120708 TGFBI 2.80133447 0.00187418 ENSG00000115902 SLC1A4 2.85901341 0.00197395 ENSG00000103257 SLC7A5 2.80503703 0.00215617 ENSG00000070371 CLTCL1 2.90823707 0.00218709 ENSG00000127241 MASP1 −2.7577773 0.00241631 ENSG00000164292 RHOBTB3 −2.7504911 0.00246705 ENSG00000171617 ENC1 2.74021006 0.00248563 ENSG00000158186 MRAS 2.92224323 0.00271268 ENSG00000182752 PAPPA −2.7035058 0.00294361 ENSG00000134853 PDGFRA −2.6580228 0.00312982 ENSG00000165029 ABCA1 −2.6467049 0.00326207 ENSG00000118523 CTGF 2.62517157 0.00334596 ENSG00000198853 RUSC2 2.65438677 0.00352266 ENSG00000188641 DPYD −2.6916522 0.00352337 ENSG00000147872 PLIN2 −2.6415827 0.00357964 ENSG00000119408 NEK6 −2.6438108 0.00399688 ENSG00000070669 ASNS 2.58331253 0.00400905 ENSG00000065911 MTHFD2 2.5641977 0.00439044 ENSG00000131435 PDLIM4 2.55921868 0.00458365 ENSG00000197594 ENPP1 2.56938165 0.00466656 ENSG00000165124 SVEP1 −2.5106635 0.00496929 ENSG00000104368 PLAT −2.5054577 0.00517753 ENSG00000162804 SNED1 −2.5154081 0.00558283 ENSG00000087008 ACOX3 2.49632218 0.00613453 ENSG00000156265 C21orf7 2.56814445 0.00614118 ENSG00000139329 LUM −2.4449067 0.00616621 ENSG00000183010 PYCR1 2.46985869 0.00638868 ENSG00000214517 PPME1 2.44759383 0.0065779 ENSG00000111186 WNT5B 2.46335531 0.00661341 ENSG00000122694 GLIPR2 2.49429147 0.00678059 ENSG00000100234 TIMP3 2.40382243 0.00681395 ENSG00000136542 GALNT5 −2.4288148 0.00695359 ENSG00000198121 LPAR1 −2.4357876 0.00713053 ENSG00000154553 PDLIM3 2.45374968 0.00729239 ENSG00000162520 SYNC 2.53882525 0.00736301 ENSG00000135919 SERPINE2 2.37546587 0.00738884 ENSG00000115963 RND3 −2.3750235 0.00749913 ENSG00000112096 SOD2 −2.4089889 0.00750824 ENSG00000168994 PXDC1 2.41631019 0.00757789 ENSG00000130635 COL5A1 2.36463839 0.00765854 ENSG00000125257 ABCC4 −2.3915739 0.00767406 ENSG00000175899 A2M −2.3564983 0.00789551 ENSG00000147224 PRPS1 2.42227839 0.00792948 ENSG00000134352 IL6ST −2.3544877 0.00798272 ENSG00000144655 CSRNP1 2.42466893 0.00830203 ENSG00000121068 TBX2 −2.3897652 0.00831686 ENSG00000183963 SMTN 2.35351506 0.008544 ENSG00000161638 ITGA5 2.33254716 0.00856086 ENSG00000073712 FERMT2 2.3323394 0.00864574 ENSG00000128590 DNAJB9 2.35073771 0.00877118 ENSG00000133816 MICAL2 2.31968643 0.00902167 ENSG00000113083 LOX 2.31217587 0.00910434 ENSG00000105329 TGFB1 2.31202161 0.00921304 ENSG00000134871 COL4A2 2.29661847 0.00939314 ENSG00000106772 PRUNE2 2.32751681 0.00944999 ENSG00000152952 PLOD2 2.28476269 0.00993745 ENSG00000110328 GALNTL4 2.45799148 0.00994213 ENSG00000147852 VLDLR 2.32508202 0.01043418 ENSG00000011422 PLAUR 2.29496533 0.01050673 ENSG00000186340 THBS2 2.26219171 0.01052617 ENSG00000164465 DCBLD1 2.29448412 0.01058626 ENSG00000100889 PCK2 2.28919489 0.01072773 ENSG00000171223 JUNB 2.24626722 0.01131056 ENSG00000134285 FKBP11 2.28988985 0.01148763 ENSG00000163110 PDLIM5 2.23835271 0.01163489 ENSG00000181104 F2R −2.2106721 0.01226847 ENSG00000106799 TGFBR1 2.21730253 0.01229295 ENSG00000136205 TNS3 −2.2199359 0.01255329 ENSG00000135048 TMEM2 2.22084958 0.01287039 ENSG00000099250 NRP1 −2.1921383 0.01318577 ENSG00000196923 PDLIM7 2.19174283 0.01327444 ENSG00000175183 CSRP2 2.23683689 0.01398546 ENSG00000128591 FLNC 2.16561759 0.01399886 ENSG00000165072 MAMDC2 2.19235097 0.01402561 ENSG00000135069 PSAT1 2.1684862 0.01430236 ENSG00000166888 STAT6 −2.2016097 0.0143223 ENSG00000134668 SPOCD1 2.30705749 0.01433835 ENSG00000142552 RCN3 2.14884922 0.01537399 ENSG00000165801 ARHGEF40 2.140188 0.0157106 ENSG00000132688 NES 2.12201961 0.01691507 ENSG00000141753 IGFBP4 −2.1015663 0.01722583 ENSG00000158966 CACHD1 2.19269046 0.01756212 ENSG00000114850 SSR3 2.08950932 0.01804143 ENSG00000112902 SEMA5A −2.1061326 0.01873853 ENSG00000067057 PFKP 2.070317 0.01875024 ENSG00000072682 P4HA2 2.06604184 0.01900324 ENSG00000113361 CDH6 2.07218406 0.01905514 ENSG00000129038 LOXL1 2.07073937 0.01937479 ENSG00000154122 ANKH 2.09170046 0.01954498 ENSG00000142871 CYR61 2.0468831 0.01960644 ENSG00000136603 SKIL 2.07686006 0.01962497 ENSG00000135905 DOCK10 2.13008136 0.01976733 ENSG00000149256 ODZ4 −2.0726023 0.01995218 ENSG00000065054 SLC9A3R2 2.06603755 0.02075587 ENSG00000107249 GLIS3 2.20934781 0.02122407 ENSG00000174099 MSRB3 2.05355244 0.02238316 ENSG00000198467 TPM2 1.9923924 0.02282632 ENSG00000135931 ARMC9 −2.039883 0.02397523 ENSG00000100139 MICALL1 2.04996518 0.02417362 ENSG00000187840 EIF4EBP1 2.02361386 0.02463796 ENSG00000127418 FGFRL1 2.04284709 0.02477047 ENSG00000100600 LGMN 1.98781976 0.02480798 ENSG00000129116 PALLD 1.9624052 0.02496631 ENSG00000109861 CTSC −1.973874 0.02538713 ENSG00000152377 SPOCK1 1.95829856 0.02546107 ENSG00000164574 GALNT10 1.9899263 0.02554389 ENSG00000006327 TNFRSF12A 1.95211091 0.02613436 ENSG00000117143 UAP1 1.93366364 0.02778912 ENSG00000156642 NPTN 1.93440065 0.02800529 ENSG00000163697 APBB2 1.95832684 0.02848863 ENSG00000162616 DNAJB4 1.9411517 0.02867804 ENSG00000132329 RAMP1 1.96899533 0.02869506 ENSG00000104635 SLC39A14 1.93105847 0.02891801 ENSG00000052802 MSMO1 1.97230039 0.02897764 ENSG00000117519 CNN3 1.9058952 0.02919559 ENSG00000152990 GPR125 −2.0967778 0.02924709 ENSG00000196352 CD55 1.9238114 0.02934175 ENSG00000165323 FAT3 2.00120682 0.02982447 ENSG00000106105 GARS 1.89960819 0.02989086 ENSG00000182492 BGN 1.89388618 0.03008093 ENSG00000092841 MYL6 1.89193012 0.03024906 ENSG00000072110 ACTN1 1.8896353 0.03037721 ENSG00000131236 CAP1 1.88826534 0.03083029 ENSG00000135424 ITGA7 1.90531417 0.03096942 ENSG00000115380 EFEMP1 −1.872144 0.03198116 ENSG00000136052 SLC41A2 2.03094837 0.03254325 ENSG00000104332 SFRP1 −1.8639924 0.03405278 ENSG00000117152 RGS4 1.9636591 0.03413922 ENSG00000065413 ANKRD44 1.93808539 0.03475794 ENSG00000115129 TP53I3 1.88563054 0.03483187 ENSG00000164949 GEM 1.8466341 0.03627579 ENSG00000007933 FMO3 −1.8668129 0.03664315 ENSG00000070495 JMJD6 1.9411517 0.03666109 ENSG00000131981 LGALS3 −1.8278832 0.03684358 ENSG00000173846 PLK3 1.87764875 0.03706531 ENSG00000100596 SPTLC2 1.85354905 0.03718866 ENSG00000131711 MAP1B 1.81244936 0.0376664 ENSG00000117114 LPHN2 −1.9045313 0.03767691 ENSG00000144724 PTPRG −1.8259538 0.03907041 ENSG00000049323 LTBP1 1.79396749 0.03916814 ENSG00000155304 HSPA13 1.80267254 0.03950001 ENSG00000135047 CTSL1 −1.7963856 0.0401029 ENSG00000159363 ATP13A2 1.85868954 0.0405056 ENSG00000101871 MID1 −1.9027541 0.04064161 ENSG00000140682 TGFB1I1 1.79894207 0.04076587 ENSG00000181019 NQO1 −1.791716 0.04097796 ENSG00000165996 PTPLA 1.90508244 0.04142984 ENSG00000182054 IDH2 1.84983653 0.04158138 ENSG00000116016 EPAS1 −1.8287135 0.04167834 ENSG00000142089 IFITM3 −1.7819417 0.04248534 ENSG00000198018 ENTPD7 1.91258254 0.04261311 ENSG00000213949 ITGA1 1.77199225 0.04266232 ENSG00000166147 FBN1 1.75788331 0.04302846 ENSG00000163297 ANTXR2 −1.7756523 0.043628 ENSG00000104518 GSDMD −1.8925912 0.04396197 ENSG00000188643 S100A16 1.76850759 0.04440116 ENSG00000087303 NID2 −1.7533753 0.0447325 ENSG00000138061 CYP1B1 −1.7576119 0.04494945 ENSG00000132432 SEC61G 1.77185056 0.04531989 ENSG00000169756 LIMS1 1.77771073 0.046255 ENSG00000060982 BCAT1 1.75102124 0.04686101 ENSG00000197622 CDC42SE1 1.85639408 0.0476266 ENSG00000100219 XBP1 1.74004838 0.04778771 ENSG00000136010 ALDH1L2 1.72220246 0.04905653 ENSG00000198856 OSTC 1.730833 0.04911071 ENSG00000151729 SLC25A4 1.81741633 0.04914682 ENSG00000152818 UTRN −1.7488228 0.04936291 ENSG00000168268 NT5DC2 1.77572809 0.04980796

TABLE 2 Gene Signature with Altered Transcription log2FC RNA(M)/ RNA ENSEMBL ID HGNC ID RNA(Ctrl) p-value ENSG00000107796 ACTA2 5.69 8.88E−07 ENSG00000049540 ELN 5.35 3.02E−06 ENSG00000106366 SERPINE1 4.45 5.47E−05 ENSG00000146674 IGFBP3 4.50 5.47E−05 ENSG00000123610 TNFAIP6 4.12 0.00017735 ENSG00000076706 MCAM 4.12 0.00026551 ENSG00000135074 ADAM19 4.00 0.00032434 ENSG00000140416 TPM1 3.72 0.00051342 ENSG00000130707 ASS1 3.81 0.00052605 ENSG00000107957 SH3PXD2A 3.70 0.00063215 ENSG00000187498 COL4A1 3.57 0.00080623 ENSG00000139211 AMIGO2 3.61 0.00085494 ENSG00000148848 ADAM12 3.58 0.00091659 ENSG00000176170 SPHK1 3.54 0.00104044 ENSG00000164761 TNFRSF11B −3.41 0.00130277 ENSG00000149591 TAGLN 3.40 0.00131241 ENSG00000006016 CRLF1 3.48 0.00153949 ENSG00000177283 FZD8 3.46 0.00160105 ENSG00000079308 TNS1 3.33 0.0021064 ENSG00000099860 GADD45B 3.38 0.00218565 ENSG00000158186 MRAS 3.37 0.00231937 ENSG00000211455 STK38L 3.30 0.00244545 ENSG00000172986 GXYLT2 3.13 0.00364601 ENSG00000189184 PCDH18 −3.08 0.00368398 ENSG00000131435 PDLIM4 3.05 0.00385193 ENSG00000106211 HSPB1 3.01 0.00438968 ENSG00000170558 CDH2 2.98 0.00526545 ENSG00000171793 CTPS 3.00 0.00558329 ENSG00000139329 LUM −2.90 0.00567798 ENSG00000113140 SPARC 2.88 0.00571107 ENSG00000162591 MEGF6 2.95 0.00596424 ENSG00000103489 XYLT1 2.97 0.00602805 ENSG00000115884 SDC1 2.88 0.0072085 ENSG00000163453 IGFBP7 2.72 0.00865684 ENSG00000134853 PDGFRA −2.70 0.00918479 ENSG00000175899 A2M −2.68 0.00920233 ENSG00000206190 ATP10A 2.74 0.00933257 ENSG00000163661 PTX3 −2.59 0.01218007 ENSG00000137809 ITGA11 2.65 0.01264373 ENSG00000137124 ALDH1B1 2.70 0.01272813 ENSG00000122786 CALD1 2.55 0.01365603 ENSG00000127241 MASP1 −2.57 0.01389162 ENSG00000110328 GALNTL4 2.66 0.01464927 ENSG00000196923 PDLIM7 2.53 0.01542871 ENSG00000025708 TYMP 2.59 0.01700225 ENSG00000152952 PLOD2 2.45 0.01776819 ENSG00000165072 MAMDC2 2.51 0.01829777 ENSG00000197594 ENPP1 2.53 0.01861632 ENSG00000135919 SERPINE2 2.40 0.01922323 ENSG00000135269 TES 2.47 0.01973346 ENSG00000104368 PLAT −2.42 0.02041801 ENSG00000129038 LOXL1 2.40 0.02049761 ENSG00000128965 CHAC1 2.54 0.02099663 ENSG00000198832 RP3-412A9.11.1 2.37 0.02162873 ENSG00000115902 SLC1A4 2.50 0.02246419 ENSG00000122694 GLIPR2 2.38 0.02572646 ENSG00000011422 PLAUR 2.33 0.02681845 ENSG00000107249 GLIS3 2.37 0.02732877 ENSG00000183010 PYCR1 2.28 0.02757996 ENSG00000111186 WNT5B 2.29 0.02786211 ENSG00000162520 SYNC 2.35 0.02977719 ENSG00000163697 APBB2 2.32 0.03055306 ENSG00000100234 TIMP3 2.22 0.03067964 ENSG00000106772 PRUNE2 2.31 0.03076204 ENSG00000168994 PXDC1 2.23 0.03111411 ENSG00000168268 NT5DC2 2.24 0.03137418 ENSG00000065054 SLC9A3R2 2.23 0.0315624 ENSG00000147224 PRPS1 2.29 0.03202045 ENSG00000164465 DCBLD1 2.22 0.03220594 ENSG00000130635 COL5A1 2.18 0.03264192 ENSG00000171617 ENC1 2.21 0.03379284 ENSG00000103257 SLC7A5 2.26 0.03503209 ENSG00000175183 CSRP2 2.26 0.0350484 ENSG00000154553 PDLIM3 2.21 0.03515586 ENSG00000133816 MICAL2 2.15 0.03618208 ENSG00000129116 PALLD 2.14 0.03660141 ENSG00000131711 MAP1B 2.20 0.03708651 ENSG00000134871 COL4A2 2.11 0.03797089 ENSG00000006327 TNFRSF12A 2.12 0.03816414 ENSG00000108821 COL1A1 2.10 0.03826416 ENSG00000187840 EIF4EBP1 2.22 0.03834287 ENSG00000165124 SVEP1 −2.14 0.03854141 ENSG00000105329 TGFB1 2.17 0.03974378 ENSG00000106799 TGFBR1 2.10 0.03990703 ENSG00000136010 ALDH1L2 2.18 0.04014228 ENSG00000147872 PLIN2 −2.10 0.04036349 ENSG00000171223 JUNB 2.10 0.04105211 ENSG00000121068 TBX2 −2.12 0.04242393 ENSG00000164574 GALNT10 2.11 0.04286773 ENSG00000165029 ABCA1 −2.06 0.044136 ENSG00000116016 EPAS1 −2.11 0.04452792 ENSG00000060982 BCAT1 2.09 0.04457308 ENSG00000131981 LGALS3 −2.06 0.04466942 ENSG00000100139 MICALL1 2.13 0.04562388 ENSG00000118523 CTGF 2.02 0.04636739 ENSG00000065911 MTHFD2 2.03 0.0469468 ENSG00000186340 THBS2 2.02 0.04716845 ENSG00000117410 ATP6V0B 2.03 0.04779432 ENSG00000120708 TGFBI 2.00 0.04817508 ENSG00000173457 PPP1R14B 2.02 0.0494489 ENSG00000174099 MSRB3 2.10 0.04957009 ENSG00000181104 F2R −2.00 0.04989444 ENSG00000161638 ITGA5 1.99 0.05000656 ENSG00000099250 NRP1 −2.01 0.05023084 ENSG00000173540 GMPPB 2.15 0.0505729 ENSG00000144655 CSRNP1 2.06 0.05123146 ENSG00000092964 DPYSL2 −2.02 0.05155695 ENSG00000135048 TMEM2 2.01 0.05188932 ENSG00000198853 RUSC2 2.03 0.05303444 ENSG00000132329 RAMP1 2.02 0.05315947 ENSG00000104635 SLC39A14 1.98 0.0536051 ENSG00000164932 CTHRC1 1.97 0.05405677 ENSG00000112769 LAMA4 −1.95 0.05420429 ENSG00000134285 FKBP11 2.07 0.05432854 ENSG00000145050 MANF 1.98 0.05494105 ENSG00000134668 SPOCD1 2.06 0.05509074 ENSG00000142552 RCN3 1.97 0.05510327 ENSG00000087008 ACOX3 2.00 0.05524263 ENSG00000018510 AGPS 2.06 0.05540727 ENSG00000163110 PDLIM5 2.00 0.05572685 ENSG00000165801 ARHGEF40 1.95 0.05592368 ENSG00000070669 ASNS 1.96 0.05660313 ENSG00000007933 FMO3 −2.01 0.05694724 ENSG00000156265 C21orf7 2.01 0.05708367 ENSG00000165996 PTPLA 2.00 0.05830933 ENSG00000090520 DNAJB11 2.00 0.05899164 ENSG00000152377 SPOCK1 1.95 0.05984535 ENSG00000125753 VASP 1.95 0.06037993 ENSG00000155304 HSPA13 1.92 0.06156215 ENSG00000128590 DNAJB9 1.97 0.06179333 ENSG00000151327 FAM177A1 1.98 0.06266866 ENSG00000138735 PDE5A −1.89 0.06344404 ENSG00000109861 CTSC −1.90 0.06413627 ENSG00000163513 TGFBR2 −1.91 0.06421189 ENSG00000151729 SLC25A4 2.01 0.06432535 ENSG00000100600 LGMN 1.92 0.06502239 ENSG00000113361 CDH6 1.91 0.06517739 ENSG00000100596 SPTLC2 1.94 0.06546002 ENSG00000144724 PTPRG −1.92 0.06605951 ENSG00000183963 SMTN 1.88 0.06648929 ENSG00000147852 VLDLR 1.99 0.067094 ENSG00000131018 SYNE1 1.86 0.06722868 ENSG00000198833 UBE2J1 1.92 0.06787646 ENSG00000169756 LIMS1 1.99 0.06804636 ENSG00000185000 DGAT1 1.94 0.06842024 ENSG00000112096 SOD2 −1.90 0.06877769 ENSG00000052802 MSMO1 1.93 0.06924478 ENSG00000100889 PCK2 1.88 0.06938457 ENSG00000136052 SLC41A2 1.96 0.07000892 ENSG00000127334 DYRK2 1.91 0.07030249 ENSG00000182054 IDH2 1.87 0.07097019 ENSG00000122729 ACO1 −1.86 0.07120481 ENSG00000087303 NID2 −1.87 0.07131478 ENSG00000162616 DNAJB4 1.92 0.07154524 ENSG00000092841 MYL6 1.81 0.07161024 ENSG00000156642 NPTN 1.84 0.07238219 ENSG00000214517 PPME1 1.93 0.07294207 ENSG00000101825 MXRA5 1.92 0.07301266 ENSG00000198467 TPM2 1.80 0.07356735 ENSG00000144810 COL8A1 1.80 0.07628075 ENSG00000181019 NQO1 −1.80 0.07693505 ENSG00000134030 CTIF 1.88 0.07713563 ENSG00000115380 EFEMP1 −1.78 0.07802011 ENSG00000196072 BLOC1S2 1.86 0.07837829 ENSG00000118508 RAB32 1.78 0.07878147 ENSG00000159363 ATP13A2 1.83 0.07900456 ENSG00000144746 ARL6IP5 −1.87 0.08073223 ENSG00000137331 IER3 1.80 0.08080819 ENSG00000142871 CYR61 1.77 0.08166504 ENSG00000154122 ANKH 1.81 0.0822588 ENSG00000073712 FERMT2 1.76 0.08290623 ENSG00000136802 LRRC8A 1.77 0.08363724 ENSG00000108106 UBE2S 1.84 0.08470435 ENSG00000114850 SSR3 1.75 0.08485595 ENSG00000239672 NME1 1.82 0.08581195 ENSG00000140682 TGFB1I1 1.79 0.08583217 ENSG00000196576 PLXNB2 −1.73 0.0874579 ENSG00000115129 TP53I3 1.75 0.08790906 ENSG00000070371 CLTCL1 1.80 0.08850262 ENSG00000126524 SBDS 1.77 0.08865039 ENSG00000198018 ENTPD7 1.81 0.08984177 ENSG00000130513 GDF15 −1.72 0.09015532 ENSG00000166888 STAT6 −1.79 0.09068891 ENSG00000127418 FGFRL1 1.79 0.09101936 ENSG00000167996 FTH1 −1.69 0.09230109 ENSG00000101955 SRPX −1.79 0.09230885 ENSG00000115963 RND3 −1.70 0.09246072 ENSG00000072110 ACTN1 1.70 0.09255263 ENSG00000162704 ARPC5 1.69 0.09583256 ENSG00000127863 TNFRSF19 −1.73 0.0958679 ENSG00000161091 MFSD12 1.74 0.09725927 ENSG00000198542 ITGBL1 1.68 0.09754718 ENSG00000196352 CD55 1.75 0.09941386 ENSG00000116260 QSOX1 −1.65 0.09954164

TABLE 3A Gene Signature (1 replicate) with Altered Translational Efficiency BABEL ENSEMBL ID HGNC ID TE p-value ENSG00000163661 PTX3 −2.7413506 4.80E−10 ENSG00000182752 PAPPA −2.031799 1.15E−07 ENSG00000173230 GOLGB1 −1.4747045 3.65E−07 ENSG00000008441 NFIX −1.6325086 3.25E−06 ENSG00000108055 SMC3 −1.5202935 6.61E−06 ENSG00000112902 SEMA5A −1.5159033 1.90E−05 ENSG00000168724 DNAJC21 −1.6152699 2.36E−05 ENSG00000138735 PDE5A −2.1383717 3.96E−05 ENSG00000102908 NFAT5 −1.2539722 8.13E−05 ENSG00000100644 HIF1A 1.29634616 8.38E−05 ENSG00000166833 NAV2 −1.4353025 0.000100353 ENSG00000136542 GALNT5 −1.2478982 0.000102241 ENSG00000138385 SSB −1.276029 0.000112036 ENSG00000047410 TPR −1.1002148 0.000115647 ENSG00000100815 TRIP11 −1.253114 0.000115691 ENSG00000135905 DOCK10 1.41487073 0.000116804 ENSG00000187446 AC012652.1.1 1.4975647 0.000169735 ENSG00000108106 UBE2S −1.9808659 0.000238753 ENSG00000108107 RPL28 1.23778107 0.00027262 ENSG00000197442 MAP3K5 −2.166021 0.000273661 ENSG00000198121 LPAR1 −1.8734643 0.000278857 ENSG00000101871 MID1 −1.6869885 0.000281936 ENSG00000138081 FBXO11 −1.2032936 0.000367153 ENSG00000111011 RSRC2 −1.2385789 0.000370672 ENSG00000127863 TNFRSF19 −1.6203293 0.000384143 ENSG00000118058 MLL −1.1124833 0.000407516 ENSG00000197321 SVIL −1.4581886 0.000458188 ENSG00000119414 PPP6C 1.16868462 0.000575527 ENSG00000102241 HTATSF1 −1.1116943 0.000665853 ENSG00000119408 NEK6 −1.5858303 0.000679474 ENSG00000144674 GOLGA4 −1.1337996 0.000700442 ENSG00000008952 SEC62 −1.0264219 0.000755397 ENSG00000005339 CREBBP −1.1959303 0.000899463 ENSG00000101972 STAG2 −1.1875122 0.000970595 ENSG00000173812 EIF1 0.74705692 0.001004834 ENSG00000168172 HOOK3 1.12108562 0.001093288 ENSG00000151067 CACNA1C −1.4996202 0.001110948 ENSG00000136819 C9orf78 −1.1803341 0.001114894 ENSG00000136244 IL6 1.40808063 0.0011622 ENSG00000137831 UACA −1.0308231 0.001200576 ENSG00000126777 KTN1 −1.1586794 0.00141984 ENSG00000085224 ATRX −0.9250079 0.00147298 ENSG00000181722 ZBTB20 −1.3561731 0.001599887 ENSG00000151914 DST −1.2345227 0.001733711 ENSG00000171793 CTPS 1.09773458 0.001903283 ENSG00000164292 RHOBTB3 −1.7514562 0.002336358 ENSG00000018510 AGPS −1.1321327 0.002431067 ENSG00000148218 ALAD −1.1916613 0.002478664 ENSG00000170027 YWHAG 0.85191988 0.002717768 ENSG00000101040 ZMYND8 −1.3571925 0.002752192 ENSG00000093167 LRRFIP2 −1.2205154 0.002887031 ENSG00000176105 YES1 −1.2351384 0.002892828 ENSG00000026025 VIM 1.08993981 0.003294757 ENSG00000152818 UTRN −1.213851 0.003490212 ENSG00000167658 EEF2 1.75181457 0.003801433 ENSG00000153922 CHD1 −0.9896109 0.004445999 ENSG00000147677 EIF3H 1.33689856 0.004466087 ENSG00000135316 SYNCRIP −0.8986489 0.00454662 ENSG00000105373 GLTSCR2 1.93251408 0.004658713 ENSG00000151461 UPF2 −1.0525428 0.004708017 ENSG00000143374 TARS2 −1.2193317 0.00478043 ENSG00000114439 BBX −1.0539237 0.004795963 ENSG00000133318 RTN3 0.84613845 0.005442031 ENSG00000049618 ARID1B −1.0178473 0.005566074 ENSG00000197170 PSMD12 −0.852153 0.005683822 ENSG00000158615 PPP1R15B 1.23383146 0.005756279 ENSG00000153774 CFDP1 −1.1005412 0.005942768 ENSG00000188641 DPYD −1.2580397 0.006287312 ENSG00000136770 DNAJC1 1.03702109 0.00652172 ENSG00000121940 CLCC1 −1.0098191 0.006536917 ENSG00000100154 TTC28 −1.0182753 0.006608779 ENSG00000113161 HMGCR 0.94424256 0.006719302 ENSG00000185068 GTF2H5 −1.0829484 0.006949215 ENSG00000005955 GGNBP2 −0.8936361 0.00729981 ENSG00000080603 SRCAP −0.9154367 0.00733119 ENSG00000001497 LAS1L −1.0314198 0.007743017 ENSG00000138061 CYP1B1 −0.8401242 0.007885734 ENSG00000164715 LMTK2 1.29018489 0.007969877 ENSG00000143545 RAB13 −1.0411451 0.007980361 ENSG00000026508 CD44 0.68665057 0.008092007 ENSG00000117054 ACADM −1.0717708 0.008211763 ENSG00000092201 SUPT16H −0.8692281 0.008387717 ENSG00000110367 DDX6 −0.879027 0.009106782 ENSG00000143924 EML4 −0.9889802 0.0092973 ENSG00000164294 GPX8 0.89184246 0.009363418 ENSG00000241685 ARPC1A 1.50567956 0.009392258 ENSG00000164548 TRA2A 0.93385802 0.00952787 ENSG00000138688 KIAA1109 −1.0676173 0.009640977 ENSG00000100528 CNIH 0.8304318 0.009829269 ENSG00000127603 MACF1 −0.943354 0.009856068 ENSG00000115652 UXS1 −1.0666256 0.0099403 ENSG00000118523 CTGF 0.60443779 0.010005062 ENSG00000182240 BACE2 −1.222017 0.01056114 ENSG00000119004 CYP20A1 −0.9860759 0.011089198 ENSG00000136146 MED4 −0.992898 0.011091961 ENSG00000124786 SLC35B3 −1.1042075 0.01133021 ENSG00000077097 TOP2B −0.8579402 0.011387162 ENSG00000185418 TARSL2 −1.1697798 0.011458991 ENSG00000125257 ABCC4 −1.2299933 0.011565549 ENSG00000104419 NDRG1 0.84121291 0.012271036 ENSG00000143995 MEIS1 −0.9850066 0.012417371 ENSG00000112972 HMGCS1 1.04256421 0.012443231 ENSG00000164830 OXR1 −0.9587293 0.013955428 ENSG00000067900 ROCK1 −0.8067914 0.014145159 ENSG00000122406 RPL5 1.49266971 0.01448355 ENSG00000137331 IER3 1.04042945 0.014705463 ENSG00000136521 NDUFB5 1.18012704 0.014891357 ENSG00000020577 SAMD4A −1.0959325 0.015243102 ENSG00000180398 MCFD2 −0.7756358 0.015377781 ENSG00000169100 SLC25A6 1.34004011 0.01579095 ENSG00000135047 CTSL1 −0.8906545 0.016073112 ENSG00000140497 SCAMP2 0.80895096 0.016513709 ENSG00000144029 MRPS5 −0.9350724 0.016712818 ENSG00000132561 MATN2 0.8592783 0.016779427 ENSG00000117523 PRRC2C −0.5599625 0.016819351 ENSG00000118689 FOXO3 −1.0512663 0.017059692 ENSG00000080345 RIF1 −0.7907628 0.017236668 ENSG00000105894 PTN −0.8244564 0.017342288 ENSG00000213949 ITGA1 0.7423431 0.017353023 ENSG00000147548 WHSC1L1 −0.9352328 0.018230486 ENSG00000163946 FAM208A −1.0185676 0.018771848 ENSG00000106261 ZKSCAN1 −1.1775938 0.018843712 ENSG00000105193 RPS16 1.10211287 0.019637409 ENSG00000139726 DENR −0.8974717 0.019791894 ENSG00000136205 TNS3 −0.8280863 0.020242812 ENSG00000145555 MYO10 −0.8048733 0.021421007 ENSG00000152022 LIX1L −0.8124639 0.0218285 ENSG00000142669 SH3BGRL3 0.55526839 0.021867346 ENSG00000141367 CLTC 0.77612663 0.022218177 ENSG00000162804 SNED1 −0.8185651 0.022559589 ENSG00000104408 EIF3E 1.32647476 0.022886033 ENSG00000110344 UBE4A 0.87653113 0.023224777 ENSG00000213064 SFT2D2 −0.755902 0.02323942 ENSG00000225921 NOL7 −0.8815021 0.023433926 ENSG00000138593 SECISBP2L −0.7761533 0.023443449 ENSG00000065150 IPO5 0.99464329 0.02369603 ENSG00000115806 GORASP2 0.67835655 0.023794157 ENSG00000100129 EIF3L 1.62687625 0.024524439 ENSG00000196914 ARHGEF12 −1.1675105 0.024891831 ENSG00000204217 BMPR2 0.69246757 0.025438073 ENSG00000109390 NDUFC1 −0.8952606 0.025491324 ENSG00000196367 TRRAP −0.7594148 0.025604694 ENSG00000144036 EXOC6B −1.0757792 0.026021627 ENSG00000169946 ZFPM2 −1.0479271 0.02631718 ENSG00000137509 PRCP 0.87652803 0.026354393 ENSG00000116747 TROVE2 −0.726508 0.026552043 ENSG00000060339 CCAR1 −0.6997234 0.026685169 ENSG00000146247 PHIP −0.8332369 0.026820782 ENSG00000084652 TXLNA 0.73915572 0.027068209 ENSG00000130741 EIF2S3 1.05466806 0.027133332 ENSG00000150961 SEC24D 0.62765591 0.027298647 ENSG00000187240 DYNC2H1 −1.06679 0.027761828 ENSG00000146433 TMEM181 −1.0414552 0.027796354 ENSG00000179295 PTPN11 −0.9140165 0.0288127 ENSG00000113282 CLINT1 −0.711755 0.028973307 ENSG00000171988 JMJD1C −0.7790863 0.028992676 ENSG00000090054 SPTLC1 0.83148984 0.029632806 ENSG00000197579 TOPORS −0.8458666 0.029699333 ENSG00000142864 SERBP1 −0.7646724 0.029899373 ENSG00000034713 GABARAPL2 0.68823059 0.029970584 ENSG00000090520 DNAJB11 −0.7810914 0.0300775 ENSG00000166855 CLPX −0.8488647 0.030097263 ENSG00000135046 ANXA1 0.86394566 0.030138772 ENSG00000196935 SRGAP1 −0.8040381 0.030202802 ENSG00000106538 RARRES2 −0.9688629 0.030236136 ENSG00000099783 HNRNPM −0.5956752 0.030351889 ENSG00000141458 NPC1 0.74822754 0.030844322 ENSG00000177606 JUN 0.71000106 0.030935017 ENSG00000097021 ACOT7 0.80866661 0.031064001 ENSG00000197111 PCBP2 0.68049208 0.031080336 ENSG00000100316 RPL3 1.67662485 0.03114172 ENSG00000197056 ZMYM1 −0.9388698 0.031399769 ENSG00000198042 MAK16 −0.8940405 0.031501821 ENSG00000148396 SEC16A 0.58297597 0.031545262 ENSG00000260916 CCPG1 −0.7102265 0.031823744 ENSG00000188191 PRKAR1B −1.027972 0.032129214 ENSG00000198146 ZNF770 −0.8146313 0.032249599 ENSG00000107949 BCCIP −0.8019017 0.032357337 ENSG00000140443 IGF1R −0.8736668 0.03237335 ENSG00000169738 DCXR −1.0509859 0.032502003 ENSG00000107317 PTGDS −0.5958188 0.032502353 ENSG00000101079 NDRG3 −0.9225847 0.032934071 ENSG00000138095 LRPPRC 0.84253686 0.03303189 ENSG00000136153 LMO7 −0.9201728 0.033102447 ENSG00000146109 ABT1 −1.1549145 0.033713746 ENSG00000136156 ITM2B 0.61379782 0.033862692 ENSG00000142599 RERE −0.8238852 0.033895821 ENSG00000154767 XPC −0.7641246 0.034070785 ENSG00000107819 SFXN3 −0.8139634 0.034640721 ENSG00000107951 MTPAP −0.8791984 0.034849044 ENSG00000107862 GBF1 0.63999556 0.03505938 ENSG00000113194 FAF2 0.71045312 0.035949786 ENSG00000136485 DCAF7 −0.6757873 0.036070299 ENSG00000189241 TSPYL1 0.7062045 0.036103289 ENSG00000138293 NCOA4 0.88765663 0.036332045 ENSG00000070371 CLTCL1 1.10443252 0.036773077 ENSG00000172954 LCLAT1 −0.8524558 0.036863783 ENSG00000196683 TOMM7 1.3075298 0.037353358 ENSG00000113048 MRPS27 1.0170333 0.037417425 ENSG00000113163 COL4A3BP −0.7578152 0.037499686 ENSG00000170242 USP47 −0.8028916 0.037635249 ENSG00000127914 AKAP9 −0.6744918 0.038026974 ENSG00000141279 NPEPPS −0.8812721 0.038230406 ENSG00000134313 KIDINS220 −0.7488098 0.038375301 ENSG00000023287 RB1CC1 −0.8487863 0.03971745 ENSG00000118181 RPS25 1.58310188 0.040307595 ENSG00000029363 BCLAF1 −0.6873768 0.041239905 ENSG00000152332 UHMK1 −0.9690309 0.041660214 ENSG00000170871 KIAA0232 −0.9350598 0.041663582 ENSG00000132792 CTNNBL1 −0.7352665 0.041674551 ENSG00000013441 CLK1 −0.9194947 0.042371585 ENSG00000169972 PUSL1 −1.0350875 0.043097174 ENSG00000128591 FLNC 0.6848822 0.043354638 ENSG00000135931 ARMC9 −0.944761 0.043425047 ENSG00000128965 CHAC1 0.79389693 0.043641321 ENSG00000131171 SH3BGRL 0.59583837 0.043953482 ENSG00000138246 DNAJC13 −0.7333811 0.044369031 ENSG00000150593 PDCD4 −0.6243741 0.044464047 ENSG00000129292 PHF20L1 −0.7749239 0.044871229 ENSG00000104067 TJP1 −0.642144 0.044883401 ENSG00000171858 RPS21 1.35698428 0.044918379 ENSG00000132688 NES 0.54614566 0.045111901 ENSG00000144713 RPL32 1.55450933 0.045432473 ENSG00000103222 ABCC1 −0.7216554 0.045567887 ENSG00000078699 CBFA2T2 −0.9232918 0.045900617 ENSG00000179387 ELMOD2 0.77525851 0.046344506 ENSG00000131389 SLC6A6 −0.6368225 0.04645475 ENSG00000122126 OCRL 0.69883954 0.046768488 ENSG00000115364 MRPL19 −0.711517 0.047054746 ENSG00000115355 CCDC88A −0.6782108 0.047073125 ENSG00000048649 RSF1 −0.6764684 0.047138641 ENSG00000156256 USP16 −0.8521086 0.047196289 ENSG00000188739 RBM34 −0.8515963 0.047979658 ENSG00000173726 TOMM20 0.94716704 0.048911642 ENSG00000135720 DYNC1LI2 −0.713868 0.049159881 ENSG00000126945 HNRNPH2 0.68135224 0.049532841 ENSG00000105887 MTPN 0.61407664 0.049580426 ENSG00000141753 IGFBP4 −0.6583794 0.049591031

TABLE 3B Gene Signature (5 Biological Replicates) with Altered Translational Efficiency ENSEMBL ID HGNC Log2 TE BABEL p-value ENSG00000250479 CHCHD10 2.51943 7.09E−12 ENSG00000118473 SGIP1 −2.76752 1.51E−11 ENSG00000150636 CCDC102B −2.97708 1.62E−11 ENSG00000122966 CIT −3.08447 2.07E−11 ENSG00000108107 RPL28 1.869423 1.81E−10 ENSG00000143632 ACTA1 −2.01787 8.62E−10 ENSG00000170681 MURC 3.678236 6.92E−09 ENSG00000105664 COMP 1.317102 7.17E−09 ENSG00000173641 HSPB7 1.292289 1.04E−08 ENSG00000054654 SYNE2 −1.79281 3.79E−08 ENSG00000132510 KDM6B 1.602992 5.15E−08 ENSG00000132170 PPARG −3.52005 6.11E−08 ENSG00000119508 NR4A3 −1.93064 7.13E−08 ENSG00000143850 PLEKHA6 −2.06925 9.33E−08 ENSG00000175505 CLCF1 1.594058 1.45E−07 ENSG00000132031 MATN3 1.340341 1.85E−07 ENSG00000169100 SLC25A6 1.909395 2.02E−07 ENSG00000196616 ADH1B −2.79469  2.8E−07 ENSG00000197111 PCBP2 1.29269 4.67E−07 ENSG00000171408 PDE7B −2.78241 5.78E−07 ENSG00000137331 IER3 1.702028 6.76E−07 ENSG00000049130 KITLG −2.02679 9.38E−07 ENSG00000139734 DIAPH3 1.658951 1.01E−06 ENSG00000167658 EEF2 2.322838 1.61E−06 ENSG00000077312 SNRPA 1.461712 1.69E−06 ENSG00000132122 SPATA6 −1.92545 3.83E−06 ENSG00000124496 TRERF1 −1.89102 4.18E−06 ENSG00000162599 NFIA −1.2934 5.92E−06 ENSG00000222009 BTBD19 1.524069 7.57E−06 ENSG00000135480 KRT7 2.000334 8.38E−06 ENSG00000105193 RPS16 1.989185 8.68E−06 ENSG00000138675 FGF5 −1.16325 1.03E−05 ENSG00000108551 RASD1 1.836079 1.15E−05 ENSG00000066279 ASPM −2.175 1.26E−05 ENSG00000174279 EVX2 2.887275 1.64E−05 ENSG00000145029 NICN1 1.402987 1.84E−05 ENSG00000139354 GAS2L3 −2.34161 1.96E−05 ENSG00000106415 GLCCI1 −1.84191 0.000026 ENSG00000197442 MAP3K5 −2.0153 2.66E−05 ENSG00000094963 FMO2 −2.14622 0.000031 ENSG00000146411 SLC2A12 −1.9708 4.09E−05 ENSG00000115267 IFIH1 −1.41561 4.77E−05 ENSG00000124749 COL21A1 −1.44522 5.07E−05 ENSG00000144218 AFF3 1.146175 5.18E−05 ENSG00000154262 ABCA6 −2.16651 5.24E−05 ENSG00000233927 RPS28 1.937376 0.000055 ENSG00000136244 IL6 1.369 7.79E−05 ENSG00000138735 PDE5A −1.59351 8.35E−05 ENSG00000187605 TET3 1.540855 8.43E−05 ENSG00000125869 LAMP5 1.298433 8.54E−05 ENSG00000146066 HIGD2A 1.195557 9.35E−05 ENSG00000189367 KIAA0408 −1.28312 0.000103 ENSG00000157168 NRG1 1.162042 0.000106 ENSG00000155962 CLIC2 −2.39184 0.000106 ENSG00000188846 RPL14 1.745447 0.000125 ENSG00000137033 IL33 −2.48811 0.000128 ENSG00000129226 CD68 1.047995 0.00014 ENSG00000171793 CTPS 1.080465 0.000147 ENSG00000152154 TMEM178 2.01577 0.000152 ENSG00000117724 CENPF −1.23716 0.000153 ENSG00000112276 BVES 1.172691 0.00016 ENSG00000131747 TOP2A −1.31413 0.000181 ENSG00000134419 RPS15A 2.194763 0.000184 ENSG00000128016 ZFP36 1.187628 0.000188 ENSG00000135390 ATP5G2 1.380759 0.000188 ENSG00000049192 ADAMTS6 2.862797 0.000209 ENSG00000105373 GLTSCR2 2.066729 0.000211 ENSG00000115268 RPS15 1.300314 0.000224 ENSG00000124406 ATP8A1 −2.12205 0.000228 ENSG00000168769 TET2 1.37689 0.000237 ENSG00000166441 RPL27A 2.090323 0.000238 ENSG00000168916 ZNF608 −1.58959 0.00024 ENSG00000147677 EIF3H 1.328509 0.000247 ENSG00000198121 LPAR1 −1.44836 0.000253 ENSG00000198932 GPRASP1 −1.23921 0.000259 ENSG00000104408 EIF3E 1.469386 0.000287 ENSG00000198848 CES1 1.084318 0.000306 ENSG00000133321 RARRES3 −1.99537 0.000312 ENSG00000122406 RPL5 1.592522 0.000392 ENSG00000070756 PABPC1 1.207052 0.000397 ENSG00000135486 HNRNPA1 1.08564 0.000404 ENSG00000137628 DDX60 −1.21094 0.000417 ENSG00000164292 RHOBTB3 −1.52866 0.000434 ENSG00000133687 TMTC1 −1.90695 0.000441 ENSG00000204628 GNB2L1 1.732459 0.000477 ENSG00000171858 RPS21 1.846388 0.00048 ENSG00000182899 RPL35A 1.626674 0.000484 ENSG00000144713 RPL32 1.915935 0.000484 ENSG00000198963 RORB −1.76565 0.000505 ENSG00000109846 CRYAB 1.107197 0.000535 ENSG00000177600 RPLP2 1.69427 0.000538 ENSG00000156508 EEF1A1 1.850575 0.000545 ENSG00000152818 UTRN −1.08497 0.00056 ENSG00000244242 IFITM10 −1.29903 0.000572 ENSG00000154654 NCAM2 −1.13535 0.000618 ENSG00000129422 MTUS1 −1.14926 0.000642 ENSG00000155621 C9orf85 1.111901 0.000643 ENSG00000097021 ACOT7 1.010887 0.000688 ENSG00000050426 LETMD1 1.270162 0.000706 ENSG00000229117 RPL41 1.473651 0.000712 ENSG00000100316 RPL3 1.780059 0.000743 ENSG00000164342 TLR3 −1.37101 0.000771 ENSG00000169239 CA5B −1.79072 0.000794 ENSG00000170537 TMC7 1.744989 0.000811 ENSG00000185033 SEMA4B −1.41345 0.000833 ENSG00000147403 RPL10 1.690799 0.000923 ENSG00000187240 DYNC2H1 −1.22778 0.000952 ENSG00000125375 ATP5S 1.075005 0.000968 ENSG00000184661 CDCA2 −1.57267 0.001062 ENSG00000171517 LPAR3 −2.38727 0.001079 ENSG00000026025 VIM 1.001738 0.001082 ENSG00000109452 INPP4B −1.56908 0.001104 ENSG00000197756 RPL37A 2.028577 0.001124 ENSG00000110700 RPS13 1.538546 0.00115 ENSG00000088367 EPB41L1 1.018214 0.001179 ENSG00000152527 PLEKHH2 −1.38949 0.00121 ENSG00000064042 LIMCH1 −1.22217 0.001224 ENSG00000100575 TIMM9 1.113218 0.001229 ENSG00000121957 GPSM2 −1.40775 0.001239 ENSG00000118898 PPL −1.53977 0.00126 ENSG00000197958 RPL12 1.878187 0.001271 ENSG00000087586 AURKA −1.73649 0.001312 ENSG00000118181 RPS25 1.697268 0.001415 ENSG00000089351 GRAMD1A 1.068576 0.001647 ENSG00000129675 ARHGEF6 −1.10045 0.001654 ENSG00000171425 ZNF581 1.450193 0.001733 ENSG00000175315 CST6 1.241221 0.001753 ENSG00000138182 KIF20B −1.28121 0.001776 ENSG00000139209 SLC38A4 −1.14245 0.00181 ENSG00000163219 ARHGAP25 1.165653 0.00184 ENSG00000125967 NECAB3 1.402793 0.001844 ENSG00000148303 RPL7A 1.650224 0.001928 ENSG00000125744 RTN2 −1.14254 0.001929 ENSG00000189180 ZNF33A −1.05822 0.002062 ENSG00000170889 RPS9 1.6139 0.002078 ENSG00000063177 RPL18 1.611619 0.002079 ENSG00000128394 APOBEC3F −1.12736 0.002113 ENSG00000100784 RPS6KA5 −1.43095 0.002244 ENSG00000174748 RPL15 1.253839 0.002262 ENSG00000197959 DNM3 −1.16065 0.002439 ENSG00000182405 PGBD4 1.055482 0.002447 ENSG00000109475 RPL34 1.607573 0.002479 ENSG00000176020 AMIGO3 −1.31388 0.002484 ENSG00000138336 TET1 1.853326 0.00249 ENSG00000185437 SH3BGR 1.121445 0.002612 ENSG00000163931 TKT 1.142358 0.002636 ENSG00000146757 ZNF92 −1.23798 0.002664 ENSG00000198182 ZNF607 −1.10762 0.002724 ENSG00000171863 RPS7 1.549128 0.002765 ENSG00000241685 ARPC1A 1.287518 0.00277 ENSG00000088756 ARHGAP28 −1.02406 0.002782 ENSG00000156482 RPL30 1.622306 0.002854 ENSG00000153707 PTPRD −1.18636 0.002863 ENSG00000128849 CGNL1 −1.02286 0.002892 ENSG00000231500 RPS18 2.003068 0.002929 ENSG00000145592 RPL37 1.808138 0.003002 ENSG00000105640 RPL18A 1.669484 0.003009 ENSG00000127863 TNFRSF19 −1.09317 0.003027 ENSG00000139372 TDG 1.024894 0.003073 ENSG00000104205 SGK3 −1.01117 0.003075 ENSG00000170962 PDGFD −1.02886 0.003142 ENSG00000162244 RPL29 1.588943 0.003207 ENSG00000172053 QARS 1.361835 0.003231 ENSG00000151773 CCDC122 −1.00405 0.003236 ENSG00000131469 RPL27 1.518506 0.003252 ENSG00000174444 RPL4 1.688063 0.003284 ENSG00000120156 TEK −1.65221 0.003299 ENSG00000100129 EIF3L 1.429034 0.003336 ENSG00000138326 RPS24 1.443788 0.003411 ENSG00000113272 THG1L 1.155349 0.003452 ENSG00000169330 KIAA1024 2.216185 0.003475 ENSG00000175390 EIF3F 1.290244 0.003503 ENSG00000169231 THBS3 1.187649 0.00351 ENSG00000183765 CHEK2 −1.45694 0.003579 ENSG00000134532 SOX5 −1.66694 0.003634 ENSG00000130255 RPL36 1.410987 0.003671 ENSG00000184702 5-Sep 1.209162 0.003794 ENSG00000104529 EEF1D 1.61919 0.003976 ENSG00000164587 RPS14 1.683901 0.003995 ENSG00000161016 RPL8 1.352789 0.00415 ENSG00000109674 NEIL3 −2.63009 0.004174 ENSG00000138449 SLC40A1 1.114207 0.004183 ENSG00000142541 RPL13A 1.796824 0.004223 ENSG00000184588 PDE4B −2.02072 0.004281 ENSG00000155816 FMN2 −1.24637 0.004306 ENSG00000163584 RPL22L1 1.012263 0.004479 ENSG00000089289 IGBP1 1.26553 0.004627 ENSG00000138356 AOX1 −1.14295 0.004762 ENSG00000108932 SLC16A6 −1.3497 0.004807 ENSG00000204520 MICA 1.143447 0.004864 ENSG00000142937 RPS8 1.610846 0.004896 ENSG00000113070 HBEGF 1.088046 0.004959 ENSG00000145741 BTF3 1.130214 0.005066 ENSG00000248905 FMN1 −1.90638 0.00514 ENSG00000083845 RPS5 1.532714 0.005184 ENSG00000198918 RPL39 1.535891 0.005218 ENSG00000105372 RPS19 1.549677 0.005369 ENSG00000163682 RPL9 1.613142 0.005382 ENSG00000142676 RPL11 1.396155 0.005383 ENSG00000165171 WBSCR27 1.116069 0.005577 ENSG00000111640 GAPDH 1.262613 0.005634 ENSG00000117543 DPH5 1.114344 0.005946 ENSG00000137154 RPS6 1.598032 0.005993 ENSG00000143947 RPS27A 1.275373 0.006092 ENSG00000170275 CRTAP 1.021832 0.006428 ENSG00000075651 PLD1 −1.03241 0.006527 ENSG00000111678 C12orf57 1.172975 0.006548 ENSG00000172809 RPL38 1.353068 0.006956 ENSG00000130741 EIF2S3 1.067385 0.00704 ENSG00000125691 RPL23 1.603975 0.007277 ENSG00000196683 TOMM7 1.126267 0.007329 ENSG00000178401 DNAJC22 −1.18938 0.00741 ENSG00000136040 PLXNC1 −1.0996 0.007562 ENSG00000090376 IRAK3 −1.01671 0.007597 ENSG00000198755 RPL10A 1.509807 0.007598 ENSG00000114391 RPL24 1.304469 0.007667 ENSG00000071082 RPL31 1.599814 0.007781 ENSG00000213741 RPS29 1.570822 0.007815 ENSG00000186184 POLR1D 1.229911 0.007848 ENSG00000161970 RPL26 1.654815 0.007913 ENSG00000198467 TPM2 1.077188 0.008168 ENSG00000115392 FANCL −1.23269 0.008213 ENSG00000137818 RPLP1 1.460829 0.008299 ENSG00000187987 ZSCAN23 −1.04823 0.008574 ENSG00000197728 RPS26 1.090113 0.008582 ENSG00000198034 RPS4X 1.533681 0.008759 ENSG00000198242 RPL23A 1.394537 0.009726 ENSG00000204397 CARD16 −1.07621 0.009841 ENSG00000149273 RPS3 1.517901 0.010391 ENSG00000117461 PIK3R3 −1.0571 0.010612 ENSG00000184254 ALDH1A3 −1.32678 0.010897 ENSG00000176438 C14orf49 −1.04426 0.010906 ENSG00000115594 IL1R1 −1.00334 0.011677 ENSG00000137819 PAQR5 −1.44514 0.013098 ENSG00000053747 LAMA3 −1.23334 0.014709 ENSG00000257949 TEN1 1.361387 0.014841 ENSG00000175084 DES 1.20409 0.015111 ENSG00000101639 CEP192 −1.19163 0.015211 ENSG00000196531 NACA 1.082663 0.01541 ENSG00000140988 RPS2 1.606507 0.015474 ENSG00000156467 UQCRB 1.047919 0.015711 ENSG00000047648 ARHGAP6 −1.08196 0.015848 ENSG00000164116 GUCY1A3 −1.93203 0.015978 ENSG00000180667 YOD1 1.146396 0.01633 ENSG00000186468 RPS23 1.302477 0.016725 ENSG00000136942 RPL35 1.279749 0.017369 ENSG00000250722 SEPP1 −1.03545 0.01764 ENSG00000139132 FGD4 −1.14179 0.017942 ENSG00000114942 EEF1B2 1.434033 0.018005 ENSG00000215472 RPL17 1.29905 0.018135 ENSG00000138134 STAMBPL1 −1.13882 0.018424 ENSG00000167526 RPL13 1.465152 0.018815 ENSG00000196323 ZBTB44 −1.22176 0.019332 ENSG00000221983 UBA52 1.125432 0.020091 ENSG00000177954 RPS27 1.428562 0.020692 ENSG00000148082 SHC3 −1.54133 0.021037 ENSG00000145425 RPS3A 1.660815 0.021105 ENSG00000163661 PTX3 −1.57581 0.021121 ENSG00000089009 RPL6 1.106565 0.021763 ENSG00000142534 RPS11 1.314223 0.02235 ENSG00000254772 EEF1G 1.550899 0.023278 ENSG00000112306 RPS12 1.642226 0.023317 ENSG00000232859 C17orf108 −1.32937 0.026416 ENSG00000108298 RPL19 1.075199 0.027309 ENSG00000111057 KRT18 1.811152 0.027619 ENSG00000106789 CORO2A 1.211664 0.027779 ENSG00000008988 RPS20 1.435033 0.030941 ENSG00000104321 TRPA1 −1.25586 0.031417 ENSG00000168028 RPSA 1.358592 0.031477 ENSG00000081377 CDC14B −1.33116 0.03257 ENSG00000146966 DENND2A −1.15633 0.033148 ENSG00000124614 RPS10 1.210967 0.035745 ENSG00000138386 NAB1 −1.01045 0.036666 ENSG00000128602 SMO −1.25412 0.037773 ENSG00000141837 CACNA1A −1.05541 0.044943 ENSG00000152413 HOMER1 1.003421 0.04711 ENSG00000135749 PCNXL2 −1.26064 0.048103

Some characteristics of these gene signatures, including the identity of the pathway with the highest statistical association for each signature, are listed in Table 4 (while these are the most significant, it is notable that significant association of these gene lists with other pathways were observed).

TABLE 4 Properties of Fibrotic Disorder Gene Signatures from IPA Analysis (Results from Single Representative Experimental Replicate) RPF RNA (Translational Translational (Transcriptome) Rate) Efficiency p-value threshold 0.1 0.05 0.05 for differential No. of genes 194 211 238 meeting threshold % of total gene 4.20% 4.50% 5.10% set Most significant Hepatic Fibrosis/ Hepatic Fibrosis/ Canonical eIF2 pathway/category Hepatic Stellate Hepatic Stellate Signaling from IPA analysis Cell Activation Cell Activation Pathway

In particular, genes showing changes in RNA levels and translational rates were most strongly associated with Hepatic Fibrosis/Hepatic Stellate Cell Activation (see FIGS. 4 and 5). This action of TGFβ in fibroblasts recapitulates much of the behavior observed in liver fibrosis. In contrast, a 12 gene signature showing a change in translational efficiency was most strongly associated with regulation of eIF2 signaling (FIG. 7). All 12 genes showed a significant increase in translational efficiency (TE) (Table 5; FIGS. 7 and 8), which extends far beyond these genes. For example, 118 of the 141 genes in the pathway evaluable in this study moved in concert, showing an increase in translational efficiency (see Table 5; FIG. 8A). The translational efficiencies of the 141 pathway-associated genes in fibroblasts before treatment with TGFβ were low (mean value −1.70 log₂ relative to population mean); the impact of TGFβ induced transformation was to increase the translational efficiency of many genes in this signature (mean value of signature upon TGFβ treatment was −1.05). Nonetheless, this was still two-fold lower than the overall population and indicates this pathway is a bottleneck in cellular transformation.

TABLE 5 Effect of TGFβ and PP242 Treatment on Translational Efficiency of Genes in Canonical eIF2 Signaling Pathway Log₂FC TE TGF-β + Symbol Entrez Gene Name p-value^(§) TGF-β PP242 EIF2C2 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2C 0.849 0.12 0.49 AKT1 v-akt murine thymoma viral oncogene homolog 1 0.604 −0.15 0.23 AKT2 v-akt murine thymoma viral oncogene homolog 2 0.634 −0.16 1.05 AKT3 v-akt murine thymoma viral oncogene homolog 3 0.734 0.35 0.09 ATM ataxia telangiectasia mutated 0.657 −0.16 −0.62 EIF1 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 1 0.001 0.75 0.40 EIF5 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5 0.205 0.56 −0.10 EIF2A eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2A, 65 kDa 0.137* 0.74 −0.51 EIF2AK1 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2-alpha kinase 1 0.505 −0.25 −0.66 EIF2AK3 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2-alpha kinase 3 0.210 0.67 −0.33 EIF2AK4 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 alpha kinase 4 0.484 −0.28 −0.22 EIF2B1 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2B, subunit 1 0.185 0.57 −0.11 alpha, 26 kDa EIF2B2 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2B, subunit 2 0.825* 0.16 0.77 beta, 39 kDa EIF2B3 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2B, subunit 3 0.281 0.54 0.51 gamma, 58 kDa EIF2B4 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2B, subunit 4 0.366 −0.35 0.34 delta, 67 kDa EIF2B5 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2B, subunit 5 0.432 0.46 0.22 epsilon, 82 kDa EIF2S1 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2, subunit 1 0.622 −0.18 −0.33 alpha, 35 kDa EIF2S2 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2, subunit 2 0.290 −0.43 −1.41 beta, 38 kDa EIF2S3 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2, subunit 3 0.027* 1.05 −0.26 gamma, 52 kDa EIF3A eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3, subunit A 0.758 0.04 −1.26 EIF3B eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3, subunit B 0.671 0.30 0.18 EIF3D eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3, subunit D 0.239* 0.71 −0.08 EIF3E eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3, subunit E 0.023* 1.33 −0.67 EIF3F eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3, subunit F 0.202* 0.92 0.46 EIF3G eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3, subunit G 0.513* 0.55 0.48 EIF3H eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3, subunit H 0.004* 1.34 −0.20 EIF3I eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3, subunit I 0.654 0.29 0.42 EIF3K eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3, subunit K 0.267* 0.73 1.09 EIF3L eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3, subunit L 0.025* 1.63 0.27 EIF3M eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3, subunit M 0.121* 0.90 −0.42 EIF4A1 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4A1 0.659 0.35 0.58 EIF4A2 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4A2 0.507 0.41 −0.63 EIF4A3 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4A3 0.765 0.19 0.35 EIF4E eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E 0.219 −0.51 −1.20 EIF4G1 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4 gamma, 1 0.725 0.10 −0.01 EIF4G2 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4 gamma, 2 0.080 0.87 −0.09 EIF4G3 eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4 gamma, 3 0.126 −0.54 −0.93 FAU Finkel-Biskis-Reilly murine sarcoma virus (FBR-MuSV) 0.718* 0.35 0.47 ubiquitously expressed GRB2 growth factor receptor-bound protein 2 0.874 0.05 0.19 GSK3B glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta 0.741 −0.13 −0.01 HRAS Harvey rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog 0.992 0.13 0.43 MAP2K1 mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 1 0.630 −0.18 −0.59 MAP2K2 mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 2 0.835 0.02 0.54 MAPK1 mitogen-activated protein kinase 1 0.799 0.12 0.25 MAPK3 mitogen-activated protein kinase 3 0.483 0.29 0.90 MRAS muscle RAS oncogene homolog 0.271 −0.45 −0.30 NRAS neuroblastoma RAS viral (v-ras) oncogene homolog 0.708 0.19 −0.89 PABPC1 poly(A) binding protein, cytoplasmic 1 0.824* 0.16 −1.48 PAIP1 poly(A) binding protein interacting protein 1 0.115 −0.69 −1.28 PIK3C3 phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, catalytic subunit type 3 0.770 −0.09 −0.50 PIK3C2A phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate 3-kinase, catalytic 0.116 −0.64 −0.77 subunit type 2 alpha PIK3CA phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase, 0.135 −0.66 −0.94 catalytic subunit alpha PIK3R4 phosphoinositide-3-kinase, regulatory subunit 4 0.070 −0.69 −0.57 PPP1CA protein phosphatase 1, catalytic subunit, alpha 0.907 0.04 0.92 isozyme PPP1CB protein phosphatase 1, catalytic subunit, beta isozyme 0.685 0.13 −0.80 PPP1CC protein phosphatase 1, catalytic subunit, gamma 0.583 0.27 0.04 isozyme PPP1R15A protein phosphatase 1, regulatory subunit 15A 0.748 −0.09 −0.51 RAF1 v-raf-1 murine leukemia viral oncogene homolog 1 0.926 0.16 0.30 RPL3 ribosomal protein L3 0.031* 1.68 0.09 RPL4 ribosomal protein L4 0.150* 1.23 −0.42 RPL5 ribosomal protein L5 0.014* 1.49 −0.37 RPL6 ribosomal protein L6 0.093 1.13 −0.36 RPL7 ribosomal protein L7 0.583 0.59 −1.33 RPL8 ribosomal protein L8 0.333* 0.69 0.90 RPL9 ribosomal protein L9 0.117* 1.41 0.69 RPL10 ribosomal protein L10 0.335* 0.74 0.09 RPL11 ribosomal protein L11 0.323* 0.78 −0.47 RPL12 ribosomal protein L12 0.123* 1.28 0.02 RPL13 ribosomal protein L13 0.482* 0.83 1.06 RPL14 ribosomal protein L14 0.114* 1.08 −0.35 RPL15 ribosomal protein L15 0.092* 0.95 −0.14 RPL17 ribosomal protein L17 0.267* 0.97 −1.28 RPL18 ribosomal protein L18 0.376* 0.81 0.58 RPL19 ribosomal protein L19 0.283* 0.71 0.31 RPL21 ribosomal protein L21 0.503* 0.83 −0.74 RPL22 ribosomal protein L22 0.849 0.22 −0.96 RPL23 ribosomal protein L23 0.363* 0.79 −0.78 RPL24 ribosomal protein L24 0.138* 1.09 0.28 RPL26 ribosomal protein L26 0.152* 1.42 −0.08 RPL27 ribosomal protein L27 0.099* 1.17 0.38 RPL28 ribosomal protein L28 0.000* 1.24 0.60 RPL29 ribosomal protein L29 0.139* 1.16 0.45 RPL30 ribosomal protein L30 0.125* 1.20 0.22 RPL31 ribosomal protein L31 0.322* 0.80 −0.71 RPL32 ribosomal protein L32 0.045 1.55 0.71 RPL34 ribosomal protein L34 0.098* 1.21 −0.44 RPL35 ribosomal protein L35 0.560* 0.59 0.07 RPL36 ribosomal protein L36 0.341* 0.76 0.46 RPL37 ribosomal protein L37 0.144* 1.31 0.20 RPL38 ribosomal protein L38 0.143* 1.00 0.50 RPL41 ribosomal protein L41 0.203* 0.85 0.77 RPL10A ribosomal protein L10a 0.393* 0.92 0.39 RPL13A ribosomal protein L13a 0.233* 1.26 0.42 RPL18A ribosomal protein L18a 0.254* 1.06 1.14 RPL22L1 ribosomal protein L22-like 1 0.076* 0.84 −0.42 RPL23A ribosomal protein L23a 0.226* 1.03 0.23 RPL27A ribosomal protein L27a 0.158* 1.17 0.31 RPL35A ribosomal protein L35a 0.079* 1.22 0.56 RPL36AL ribosomal protein L36a-like 0.792 −0.08 −0.99 RPL37A ribosomal protein L37a 0.175* 1.33 0.71 RPL7A ribosomal protein L7a 0.080* 1.37 0.84 RPLP0 ribosomal protein, large, P0 0.641 0.73 0.76 RPLP1 ribosomal protein, large, P1 0.546* 0.50 1.00 RPLP2 ribosomal protein, large, P2 0.243* 0.93 0.58 RPS2 ribosomal protein S2 0.441* 0.88 −0.07 RPS3 ribosomal protein S3 0.198* 1.22 0.42 RPS5 ribosomal protein S5 0.510* 0.75 0.78 RPS6 ribosomal protein S6 0.079* 1.59 0.48 RPS7 ribosomal protein S7 0.152* 1.13 0.13 RPS8 ribosomal protein S8 0.180* 1.20 −0.08 RPS9 ribosomal protein S9 0.288* 0.97 0.87 RPS10 ribosomal protein S10 0.519* 0.74 0.75 RPS11 ribosomal protein S11 0.339* 0.97 0.53 RPS12 ribosomal protein S12 0.500* 0.94 0.12 RPS13 ribosomal protein S13 0.098* 1.15 0.36 RPS14 ribosomal protein S14 0.309* 1.01 0.44 RPS15 ribosomal protein S15 0.096* 0.74 0.06 RPS16 ribosomal protein S16 0.020* 1.10 3.46 RPS18 ribosomal protein S18 0.349* 1.18 0.48 RPS19 ribosomal protein S19 0.321* 0.99 0.61 RPS20 ribosomal protein S20 0.194* 1.39 0.29 RPS21 ribosomal protein S21 0.045* 1.36 0.73 RPS23 ribosomal protein S23 0.415* 0.74 −0.02 RPS24 ribosomal protein S24 0.343* 0.66 −0.64 RPS25 ribosomal protein S25 0.040* 1.58 0.05 RPS26 ribosomal protein S26 0.242* 0.71 0.60 RPS27 ribosomal protein S27 0.205* 1.08 −0.09 RPS28 ribosomal protein S28 0.336* 0.74 0.15 RPS29 ribosomal protein S29 0.329* 0.89 0.64 RPS15A ribosomal protein S15a 0.074* 1.53 −0.04 RPS27A ribosomal protein S27a 0.346* 0.71 −0.06 RPS27L ribosomal protein S27-like 0.687 −0.15 −0.89 RPS3A ribosomal protein S3A 0.197* 1.48 0.59 RPS4X ribosomal protein S4, X-linked 0.252* 1.14 0.18 RPS4Y1 ribosomal protein S4, Y-linked 1 0.280 0.78 0.07 RPSA ribosomal protein SA 0.407* 0.99 1.30 RRAS related RAS viral (r-ras) oncogene homolog 0.965 0.00 0.70 RRAS2 related RAS viral (r-ras) oncogene homolog 2 0.914 0.02 −0.41 SHC1 SHC (Src homology 2 domain containing) 0.777 −0.04 0.78 transforming protein 1 SOS2 son of sevenless homolog 2 (Drosophila) 0.419 0.49 −0.63 UBA52 ubiquitin A-52 residue ribosomal protein 0.249* 0.87 0.71 fusion product 1 ^(§)p-value is for the difference between TGFβ-treated and control cells. Gene names in BOLD have p values ≤ 0.05. *p-values marked with an asterisk have values ≤ 0.05 based upon data from five biological control and five TGFβ-treated replicates.

The linkage of fibroblast transformation by TGFβ to the eIF2 pathway can be identified by changes in translational rate. For example, the mean log₂FC (log₂ fold change) in TE for this set of 141 genes was 0.65 as compared to 0.02 for the overall gene population. The mean change in translational rate was of the same order (0.76 for the 141 genes as compared to 0.24 for the overall gene population). But in this system, the relatively large number of changes in translational rate driven primarily by changes in mRNA levels obscured this relationship. In contrast, there is little evidence of linkage to the eIF2 pathway in the transcriptome data (e.g., mean change was 0.11 for the 141 genes as compared to 0.22 for the overall gene population).

When fibroblasts were treated with TGFβ and the mTOR inhibitor PP242, 11 out of 12 of the subset of genes found to be associated with the eIF2 signaling pathway moved toward the untransformed, normal state (FIG. 7). The mean increase in translational efficiency in these 12 genes caused by TGFβ treatment of fibroblasts was 1.3 log₂, but the presence of PP242 decreased this value to 0.4 log₂. Similar results were seen for all genes in the pathway, wherein 104 of 141 genes moved toward normal (FIG. 8). The mean increase in translational efficiency of these 12 genes in fibroblasts treated with TGFβ was 0.65 log₂, while the presence of PP242 decreased this value to 0.09 log₂. Clearly, the presence of PP242 maintains the translational efficiencies of the genes in the eIF2 pathway at their normal levels in fibroblasts. Moreover, PP242 inhibition of mTOR directly regulates the translational efficiencies of a number of genes in the eIF2 pathway in other disease cell systems (e.g., prostate (PC3) and colon (SW620) cancer cells). Normalization of this pathway by mTOR inhibitor PP242 is due to substantially inhibiting TGFβ induced transformation of fibroblasts to fibrotic myofibroblasts.

Conclusion

TGFβ-dependent transformation of fibroblasts to myofibroblasts is known to be driven in large part by transcriptional activation. Here, changes in translational rate and RNA levels on a genome-wide level were shown to be highly correlated (see FIG. 3). In contrast, changes in translational efficiency were relatively independent of transcriptional and translational rate changes. Thus, in this case, measurements of translational efficiency provide a unique window into the cellular biology of fibrotic disorders. Correspondingly, the outcome of pathway analysis based on gene identification via changes in translational efficiency upon TGFβ treatment is quite distinct from analyses based upon transcription or translational rate.

Ribosomal profiling showed that the effect of PP242 on both procollagen and α-SMA were a consequence of preventing fibroblast transformation and transcriptional regulation (instead of a decrease in translation efficiency of mRNA to protein). Specifically, the translational efficiencies of the procollagen and α-SMA were essentially independent of TGFβ and PP242 treatment. Co-administration of TGFβ with mTOR inhibitor PP242 reverses or prevents the changes observed in the eIF2 pathway (i.e., normalizes the translational efficiencies of the genes) and inhibits increased production of fibrotic disorder biomarker proteins, type 1 procollagen and smooth muscle α-actin (which are both hallmarks of TGF-β-mediated fibroblast transformation into myofibroblasts). Although these two biomarkers are only affected at the transcriptional level and not the translational level, they nonetheless provide a means to monitor the pathogenic state of the cell that is mediated by other fibrosis-related genes that are affected at the translational level.

Comparison of translational efficiencies between the normal, healthy state (fibroblasts) and the pathogenic state (fibrotic myofibroblasts induced by TGFβ treatment) identified a novel pathway previously not associated with fibrosis, which is a new insight into a key role of translational efficiency in the pathogenesis of fibrotic disease. Further, an mTOR inhibitor (such as PP242) that modulates this fibrotic disorder-associated pathway and prevents TGFβ-mediated fibroblast to myofibroblast transformation confirms the association of this pathway with fibrotic disease and, thus, shows that components and regulators of this pathway are new targets. The methods of the instant disclosure show that new gene signatures having altered translational profiles (e.g., altered translational efficiency) may be identified using such methods. Furthermore, these data show that an agent or therapeutic that normalizes a translational profile may also be identified. Finally, these data show that targets not previously validated for a particular disorder (in this case, fibrosis), can be identified and validated using the methods of this disclosure.

Example 4 Effect of eIF4A Inhibition on Fibrotic Disease Development

Silvestrol, a cyclopenta[b]benzofuran compound, is a natural product known to inhibit eIF4A, which is the DEAD-box RNA helicase of the eIF4F complex. The TGFβ-mediated transdifferentiation of fibroblasts as described in Example 1 was used as a model to examine whether modulation of eIF4A might have a role in fibrotic disorders.

Briefly, normal human lung fibroblasts (Lonza; cell passage numbers 2 through 5 were used for all experiments) were seeded (Day 0) and cultured in Dulbecco's modified Eagle medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), penicillin, streptomycin and glutamax (Invitrogen) at 37° C. in a humidified incubator with 5% CO₂ conditions overnight. On Day 1, cells were harvested, washed with phosphate buffered saline (PBS), and then incubated for 48 hours in fresh serum-free DMEM supplemented with penicillin, streptomycin, and glutamax. On Day 3, cells were harvested, resuspended in fresh serum-free DMEM containing silvestrol (1, 5, 10, 75, 100, 500, or 1000 nM) and 10 ng/ml TGFβ, and cultured for 24 hours. Controls included untreated cells and cells treated with only TGFβ.

After this 24 hour incubation, procollagen type 1 levels were measured by collecting culture media, centrifuging to pellet cellular debris, and stored at −80° C. Procollagen Type 1 C-Peptide (PIPC) was quantified using the (PIP) EIA kit (Clontech) according to manufacturer's instructions. The TGFβ-treated fibroblasts of this example are examined by ribosomal profiling (about 6×10⁶ cells/10 cm plate) and western blot analysis (about 1×10⁶ cells/well of a 6-well plate).

Results

Transdifferentiation of fibroblasts into fibrotic myofibroblasts by treatment with TGFβ for 24 hours was accompanied by an approximately 75% increase in procollagen production, while treatment with silvestrol was able to block this increase (EC₅₀ of about 12 nM) (FIG. 9). Inhibition of procollagen by silvestrol appears saturable, with the extent of inhibition at higher concentrations reaching about 90% of untreated TGFβ-transformed myofibroblasts (equivalent to about 80% inhibition of untreated, untransformed control fibroblasts). Expression of TGFβ-induced myofibroblast differentiation marker, smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), was also analyzed by western blot analysis. After 24 hours of TGF-β stimulation, increased α-SMA protein levels were detectable, while the level of β-actin did not change. As with procollagen, co-incubation of cells with TGFβ and silvestrol caused a reduction of the α-SMA protein level in a dose dependent manner (EC₅₀ of about 11 nM) such that the ratio of α-SMA to β-actin at higher silvestrol concentrations was the same as in untransformed, untreated fibroblasts (FIG. 10).

Conclusion

Co-administration of TGFβ with eIF4A inhibitor silvestrol reverses or prevents the changes observed in a fibrotic disorder-related pathway as evidenced by an inhibition of increased production of fibrotic disorder biomarker proteins, type 1 procollagen and α-smooth muscle actin (which are both hallmarks of TGFβ-mediated fibroblast transdifferentiation into myofibroblasts). While silvestrol is known to have anti-tumor activity (see, e.g., Cencic et al., PLoS One 4:e5223, 2009), the usefulness of an eIF4A inhibitor like silvestrol in the treatment of fibrosis was an unexpected result.

Example 5 Effect of siRNA Knockdown of eIF4A on Transdifferentiation of Fibroblasts into Myofibroblasts

Normal human lung fibroblasts were seeded (Day 0) and cultured in Dulbecco's modified Eagle medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), penicillin, streptomycin and glutamax (Invitrogen) at 37° C. in a humidified incubator with 5% CO₂ overnight. On Day 1, cells were washed with phosphate buffered saline (PBS) and then incubated for 24 hours in fresh serum-free DMEM supplemented with penicillin, streptomycin, and glutamax. On Day 2, cells were transfected with siRNA against eIF4A1 (sieIF4A1; sense sequence: GCGAGCCAUUCUACCUUGUtt (SEQ ID NO.: 5); antisense sequence: ACAAGGUAGAAUGGCUCGCtg (SEQ ID NO.: 6)) or unrelated control siRNA (siCont) in serum-free DMEM and cultured for 24 hours. On Day 3, serum-free DMEM in the presence or absence of 10 ng/ml TGFβ was added and cultured for an additional 24 hours.

The levels of α-SMA and procollagen type 1, markers of fibroblast transdifferentiation into myofibroblasts and a surrogate for fibrotic disease progression, were measured after a 24 hour incubation of fibroblasts in the presence or absence of TGFβ sieIF4A1 or siCont. The knockdown efficiency was determined by quantitating the eIF4A mRNA level by qPCR (data not shown) and assessing the protein level by western analysis (see FIG. 11).

For the imaging of α-smooth muscle actin and F-actin, normal human lung fibroblasts transfected with siControl or sieIF4A±TGFβ as described above were seeded on coverslips for immunofluorescence microscopy (IF). The following day, cells were washed with PBS, fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde, permeabilized in PBS containing 0.3% Triton X-100®, and blocked in 10% goat serum. To stain for α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and F-actin, coverslips were then incubated with the anti-α-SMA antibody followed by fluorescent conjugated secondary antibody and fluorescent conjugated phalloidin. Finally, coverslips were washed and mounted with mounting media containing DAPI to visualize the nuclei. Immunofluorescence images were captured using the EVOS FL Cell Imaging System (Life Technologies) (FIG. 12).

Results

Transdifferentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts by treatment with TGFβ was verified by an increase in production of both α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and procollagen, which was not affected in samples transfected with control siRNA (siCont) alone. In contrast, cells transfected with eIF4A siRNA resulted in approximately 80% knockdown of eIF4A (as determined by either qPCR or western analysis). The specific knockdown of eIF4A with siRNA substantially inhibited TGFβ-induced increases in α-SMA and procollagen levels (FIG. 11).

Examination of cell morphology by immunofluorescent staining of α-SMA shows an increase in α-SMA fibril formation associated with TGFβ-induced transdifferentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts, which appear as long white fibrils with nuclei appearing as white spots in the middle of the fibril (see FIG. 12A). The specific knockdown of eIF4A with siRNA inhibits the TGFβ-induced transdifferentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts, which results in decreased production and staining of α-SMA with primarily only the nuclei visible (see FIG. 12C). The presence of either siRNA in the absence of TGFβ treatment has no effect on the fibroblast phenotype and no effect on α-SMA production (see FIGS. 12B and 12D).

Conclusion

Specific knockdown of the translation initiation target, eIF4A, reverses or prevents the changes observed in a fibrotic disorder-related pathway as evidenced by an inhibition of increased production of fibrotic disorder biomarker proteins, α-smooth muscle actin and type 1 procollagen (which are both hallmarks of TGFβ-mediated fibroblast transdifferentiation into myofibroblasts).

Example 6 Effect of Various Compounds on Fibrotic Disease Development

The TGFβ-mediated transformation of fibroblasts as described in Examples 1 and 4 was used as a model to examine whether compounds known to treat fibrosis as well as compounds with no previously known association with the disease might have a role in treating fibrotic disorders. Compounds shown to be effective at treating fibrosis in vitro and in vivo and tested here include: pirfenidone (5-methyl-1-phenylpyridin-2-one, approved for the treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis), trichostatin A (TSA, 7-[4-(dimethylamino)phenyl]-N-hydroxy-4,6-dimethyl-7-oxohepta-2,4-dienamide) and rapamycin (an mTOR inhibitor). While pirfenidone has been shown to have antifibrotic and anti-inflammatory properties in various in vitro and in vivo models (Schaefer et al., Eur. Respir. Rev. 20:85, 2011), it is unknown what biological molecule is targeted by this drug. TSA inhibits the class I and II histone deacetylase enzymes and has been shown to prevent the accumulation of extracellular matrix in mouse fibrosis models (Huber et al., Arthritis Rheum. 56:2755, 2007; Van Beneden et al., Tox. Appl. Pharma. 271:276, 2013).

Inhibitors and activators of specific targets with no previously known association with fibrosis were also examined in the TGFβ-mediated fibroblast transformation assay. For example, agents that modulate translation factors were tested, including silvestrol (an eIF4A inhibitor), 1-(benzo[c][1,2,5]oxadiazol-5-yl)-3-(4-chlorophenyl)urea (BOCPU, an activator of eIF2αK), siRNA specific for knocking down eIF4A and eIF4E. In addition, N1-guanyl-1,7-diaminoheptane (GC7), ciclopirox oloamine (CPX), and siRNA specific for knocking down DOHH were tested, which are inhibitors of enzymes that post-translationally modify eIF5A. Also tested was 3-deaza-adenosine (DZA), which indirectly inhibits the enzyme responsible for 5′-cap methylation of mRNA as well as a number of other methylating enzymes. Finally, also evaluated was 2-[(3,5-Difluoro-4-hydroxyphenyl)amino]-7,8-dihydro-5,7-dimethyl-8-(3-methylbutyl)-6(5H)-pteridone (BI-D1870), an inhibitor of the p90 ribosomal s6K enzyme within the RAS/MEK pathway.

TABLE 6 Effect of Various Compounds on Fibrosis Markers Translation % Renormalization* Target Factor Agent α-SMA Collagen — — pirfenidone +++ +++ Tyrosine kinase — Nintedanib +++ +++ inhibitor eIF2αK eIF2α BOCPU +++ ND^(†) eIF4A eIF4A Silvestrol +++ +++ eIF4A eIF4A siRNA^(‡) +++ ++ mTOR eIF4E PP242 +++ +++ eIF4E eIF4E siRNA^(§) + ++ mTOR rpS6 Rapamycin + ++ Deoxyhypusine eIF5A CPX +++ +++ hydroxylase (DOHH) siRNA^(#) ++ ++ Histone eIF5A TSA ++ +++ deacetylase (HDAC) Deoxyhypusine eIF5A GC7 + + synthase (DHPS) mTOR rpS6 Rapamycin + ++ p90 Ribosomal S6 rpS6 BI-D1870 ++ +++ kinase (RSK) Adenosylhomo- Cap DZA + + cysteinase methylation (AHCY) *+ = 0-30%; ++ = 30-60%; +++ = >60% ^(†)Not determined ^(‡)80% knockdown of eIF4A target ^(§)70% knockdown of eIF4E target ^(#)50% knockdown of DOHH target

As shown in the previous examples, transformation of fibroblasts into fibrotic myofibroblasts by treatment with TGFβ for 24 hours was accompanied by an increase in procollagen and smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) production, as measured by ELISA and western blot analysis, respectively. Both PP242 (Example 1) and silvestrol (Example 4) were able to block this increase in procollagen and α-SMA—that is, renormalize production levels of these fibrosis biomarkers (see, also, Table 6). Interestingly, mTOR inhibitors PP242 and rapamycin do not promote renormalization to the same level, which may be due to the different mechanisms of action (rapamycin is an allosteric inhibitor of mTOR, while PP242 is an ATP-competitive inhibitor that directly targets the mTOR catalytic site). The compounds most effective at promoting renormalization of the fibrosis markers in fibroblasts treated with TGFβ (PP242, silvestrol, pirfenidone, CPX, and TSA) were further analyzed by ribosomal profiling as described in Example 3.

Example 7 Translational Profiling: Reversal (Renormalization) of Fibrotic Disease Development

Ribosomal profiles of TGFβ-treated fibroblasts in the presence or absence of PP242, silvestrol, pirfenidone, CPX, or TSA individually were prepared in duplicate and analyzed for changes in translational efficiencies as described in Example 3.

Genes showing TGFβ-induced modulation of their translational profiles, including both up and down modulated profiles, as compared to untreated cells are provided in Table 7 (see column labeled “Control vs. TGFβ”). The gene set listed in Table 7 represents those genes having a log₂ fold change in translational efficiency of ≥1 and ≤−1 (translational efficiency p-value ≤0.01).

TABLE 7 Differential Effect of Various Compounds on Translational Renormalization of TGFβ Modulation Control vs. Compound^(‡) Exp. (NS)∥ ENSEMBL ID HGNC ID TGFβ^(†) PP242 Pirfenidone Silvestrol CPX TSA 1 2 3 ENSG00000154262 ABCA6 A − − ++ − − * * ENSG00000097021 ACOT7 D − − − − − * ENSG00000143632 ACTA1 A − + + − * ENSG00000158859 ADAMTS4 D − − − − * * ENSG00000154736 ADAMTS5 C − − + + − ENSG00000049192 ADAMTS6 F − − − − − ENSG00000176020 AMIGO3 C − + − − + * * ENSG00000101935 AMMECR1 D − − − − − * * ENSG00000166839 ANKDD1A C + + − − − ENSG00000154122 ANKH D − − + − − * * ENSG00000138356 AOX1 B − − − − ++ ENSG00000129675 ARHGEF6 C − − − − − * ENSG00000241685 ARPC1A D − − − − + * ENSG00000066279 ASPM A + + + − + * ENSG00000130707 ASS1 D − − − − − * ENSG00000099624 ATP5D D − − − − − ENSG00000135390 ATP5G2 E + + − − − ENSG00000087586 AURKA B − − − − ++ ENSG00000134897 BIVM B + − − + − * * ENSG00000145741 BTF3 D − − − − − ENSG00000111678 C12orf57 D − − − − + * ENSG00000176438 C14orf49 C − − − − − ENSG00000104979 C19orf53 D − − − − − * ENSG00000183172 C22orf32 D − − − − − * ENSG00000155621 C9orf85 D + − − − − * ENSG00000169239 CA5B B + ++ + − + * ENSG00000162545 CAMK2N1 C − − − − − * ENSG00000204397 CARD16 B − − + − − * * ENSG00000150636 CCDC102B A − ++ − − + ENSG00000101639 CEP192 C − − + − − * * ENSG00000198848 CES1 E − − + − ENSG00000250479 CHCHD10 F +++ +++ − − * ENSG00000122966 CIT A − + +++ − +++ ENSG00000175505 CLCF1 E − − + − + ENSG00000105664 COMP E − − − − − * ENSG00000106789 CORO2A E − − − − * * ENSG00000127184 COX7C D − − − − − * ENSG00000146592 CREB5 D − + − − − * ENSG00000109846 CRYAB D − − − − − ENSG00000171793 CTPS D − − − − − * ENSG00000137628 DDX60 C − − + − − * * ENSG00000146966 DENND2A C − − − − − * * ENSG00000175084 DES E − − − − − * ENSG00000139734 DIAPH3 E − ++ − − − ENSG00000178401 DNAJC22 B + + − − − * * ENSG00000013563 DNASE1L1 D − − + − − * * ENSG00000117543 DPH5 D − − − − − * * ENSG00000187240 DYNC2H1 B − − ++ − − * * ENSG00000078401 EDN1 E − − ++ − − * ENSG00000156508 EEF1A1 E + + − − + ENSG00000114942 EEF1B2 E − − − − − ENSG00000104529 EEF1D E − − − − − ENSG00000254772 EEF1G E − − − − − * * ENSG00000167658 EEF2 F + + − − + ENSG00000130741 EIF2S3 D − − − − − * ENSG00000104408 EIF3E E + − − − − ENSG00000175390 EIF3F D − − − − − ENSG00000147677 EIF3H E − − − − − ENSG00000100129 EIF3L D − − − − − * ENSG00000149100 EIF3M D − − − − − * ENSG00000063046 EIF4B E + + − − + * ENSG00000088367 EPB41L1 D − − + − + ENSG00000149806 FAU D − − − − − * * ENSG00000138675 FGF5 B ++ + − − − ENSG00000094963 FMO2 A +++ +++ − − + * ENSG00000151474 FRMD4A C − − − + + * ENSG00000111640 GAPDH E + − − − − ENSG00000139354 GAS2L3 A − − + − + * * ENSG00000107623 GDF10 C − − − + + * ENSG00000130513 GDF15 D − − − − − * ENSG00000106415 GLCCI1 B + + + − + ENSG00000105373 GLTSCR2 E + + − + + ENSG00000204628 GNB2L1 E + + − − − ENSG00000121957 GPSM2 B − − − − ++ ENSG00000113070 HBEGF D − − + − − * * ENSG00000164588 HCN1 D − − − * ENSG00000146066 HIGD2A D + + − − − * ENSG00000064393 HIPK2 C − − − − − * ENSG00000135486 HNRNPA1 D + − − − − ENSG00000152413 HOMER1 D − − + − − * * ENSG00000170801 HTRA3 C − − − − − * ENSG00000137331 IER3 E − − − − − ENSG00000115267 IFIH1 B + + − − − * ENSG00000089289 IGBP1 E − − − − − * ENSG00000163453 IGFBP7 E − − − − − ENSG00000136244 IL6 E − − − − − ENSG00000178035 IMPDH2 D − − − − − * * ENSG00000122641 INHBA D − − + − − * ENSG00000090376 IRAK3 C − − + − + * * ENSG00000149596 JPH2 F − * * ENSG00000089094 KDM2B C − − − − − * * ENSG00000132510 KDM6B E − − + − − ENSG00000169330 KIAA1024 F − − * * ENSG00000049130 KITLG A − − − − + * ENSG00000135480 KRT7 E − ++ − ++ − ENSG00000196878 LAMB3 D − − + + − * ENSG00000125869 LAMP5 E − − − + − ENSG00000182909 LENG9 D − − + − − * ENSG00000050426 LETMD1 D − − − − − ENSG00000100097 LGALS1 D − + − − − ENSG00000121897 LIAS D − − − − − * ENSG00000128342 LIF D − − − − − * * ENSG00000198121 LPAR1 C − − − − − ENSG00000171517 LPAR3 A − − + − ++ * * ENSG00000188906 LRRK2 C − − − − − * * ENSG00000197442 MAP3K5 B − − − − + * ENSG00000132031 MATN3 D − − + − − ENSG00000112559 MDFI A − − − − ENSG00000204520 MICA E − − − − − ENSG00000174100 MRPL45 D + − − − − * * ENSG00000129422 MTUS1 B + ++ − − − ENSG00000170681 MURC F − − − − + * ENSG00000141140 MYO19 D − − + − − * * ENSG00000196531 NACA E − + − − − ENSG00000109065 NAT9 D − − − − − * ENSG00000125967 NECAB3 E − − − − − * * ENSG00000136999 NOV C − − − − + * ENSG00000183971 NPW D − − − − * ENSG00000157168 NRG1 D − − + − − ENSG00000154358 OBSCN B − − − + +++ * ENSG00000155463 OXA1L D − − − − − * * ENSG00000089041 P2RX7 B + ++ − ++ ++ * * ENSG00000070756 PABPC1 D − − − − − * ENSG00000090621 PABPC4 D − − + − − * * ENSG00000137819 PAQR5 B − − − + − * ENSG00000197111 PCBP2 E − − + − + ENSG00000184588 PDE4B B − + +++ − + * * ENSG00000138735 PDE5A B − − − − − * * ENSG00000171408 PDE7B A − − + − ++ ENSG00000075651 PLD1 B − − ++ − − * * ENSG00000052126 PLEKHA5 C − − ++ − − * * ENSG00000143850 PLEKHA6 B − − − + + ENSG00000120278 PLEKHG1 B − − − + − * ENSG00000152527 PLEKHH2 B − − − − − * * ENSG00000198523 PLN F − − − − * ENSG00000102007 PLP2 D − − − − − ENSG00000186184 POLR1D E − − − − − * * ENSG00000132170 PPARG A − +++ +++ − + ENSG00000118898 PPL B − − − − − * ENSG00000185920 PTCH1 D − − − − − * * ENSG00000172053 QARS D − − − − − ENSG00000105514 RAB3D B + + − − ++ * * ENSG00000133321 RARRES3 B − − − − − ENSG00000108551 RASD1 E − − +++ − − * ENSG00000068028 RASSF1 D − − − − − ENSG00000164292 RHOBTB3 B − − − − − * * ENSG00000185008 ROBO2 C − − − + − * ENSG00000166503 RP11-382A20.3.1 C − − − − − * * ENSG00000147403 RPL10 E − + − − + ENSG00000198755 RPL10A E − − − − − ENSG00000142676 RPL11 E − − − − − ENSG00000197958 RPL12 E − + − − − ENSG00000167526 RPL13 E − − − − − * * ENSG00000142541 RPL13A E − + − − − ENSG00000188846 RPL14 E − − − − + ENSG00000174748 RPL15 D − − − − − ENSG00000215472 RPL17 E − + − − − ENSG00000063177 RPL18 E + + − − − ENSG00000105640 RPL18A E + + − − − ENSG00000108298 RPL19 D − − − − − * * ENSG00000122026 RPL21 E − + − − − * * ENSG00000163584 RPL22L1 D − + − − − ENSG00000125691 RPL23 E − + − − − ENSG00000198242 RPL23A E − − − − − * * ENSG00000114391 RPL24 E − − − − − ENSG00000161970 RPL26 E − + − − − ENSG00000131469 RPL27 E − − − − − * ENSG00000166441 RPL27A F − + − − − ENSG00000108107 RPL28 E − + − − − ENSG00000162244 RPL29 E − − − − − ENSG00000100316 RPL3 E − + − − − ENSG00000156482 RPL30 E − + − − − ENSG00000071082 RPL31 E + + − − − ENSG00000144713 RPL32 E − − − − − ENSG00000109475 RPL34 E − + − − − ENSG00000136942 RPL35 E − − − − − * ENSG00000182899 RPL35A E + + − − − ENSG00000130255 RPL36 E − + − − − ENSG00000165502 RPL36AL D − − − − ENSG00000145592 RPL37 E − + − − − ENSG00000197756 RPL37A E − + − − − ENSG00000172809 RPL38 E − − − − − * ENSG00000198918 RPL39 E − − − − − ENSG00000174444 RPL4 E − + − − − ENSG00000229117 RPL41 E − − − − − * ENSG00000122406 RPL5 E + + − − − ENSG00000089009 RPL6 D − − − − − * * ENSG00000148303 RPL7A E − + − − − ENSG00000161016 RPL8 E − − − − − ENSG00000163682 RPL9 E − + − − − ENSG00000089157 RPLP0 D − − − − − * * ENSG00000137818 RPLP1 E − + − − − * * ENSG00000177600 RPLP2 E − + − − − ENSG00000124614 RPS10 D − + − − − * * ENSG00000142534 RPS11 D − − − − − * * ENSG00000112306 RPS12 E − − − − − * * ENSG00000110700 RPS13 E − − − − − ENSG00000164587 RPS14 E − − − − − ENSG00000115268 RPS15 D + + − − − * ENSG00000134419 RPS15A F + + − − − ENSG00000105193 RPS16 F − + − − − ENSG00000231500 RPS18 E + + − − − ENSG00000105372 RPS19 E − + − − − ENSG00000140988 RPS2 E − − − − − * * ENSG00000008988 RPS20 E − − − − − * ENSG00000171858 RPS21 E − − − − − ENSG00000186468 RPS23 E − − − − − ENSG00000138326 RPS24 E − − − − − ENSG00000118181 RPS25 E − − − − − ENSG00000197728 RPS26 D − − − − − * ENSG00000177954 RPS27 E − + − − − * ENSG00000143947 RPS27A E − − − − − ENSG00000233927 RPS28 E + + − + − ENSG00000213741 RPS29 E + + − − − ENSG00000149273 RPS3 E − − − − − * ENSG00000145425 RPS3A E − − − − − * * ENSG00000198034 RPS4X E − − − − − ENSG00000129824 RPS4Y1 D − − − − − ENSG00000083845 RPS5 E − + − − − ENSG00000137154 RPS6 E − − − − − ENSG00000100784 RPS6KA5 B + − + − − * ENSG00000171863 RPS7 E − − − − − ENSG00000142937 RPS8 E − + − − − * ENSG00000170889 RPS9 E − + − − − ENSG00000168028 RPSA D − − − − − * * ENSG00000125744 RTN2 C − − − − − * ENSG00000075213 SEMA3A C − − − − − * * ENSG00000118473 SGIP1 B − − + − − * ENSG00000185437 SH3BGR D − − − − * ENSG00000148082 SHC3 B − − − +++ + * ENSG00000110446 SLC15A3 B − − − − ++ * ENSG00000169100 SLC25A6 E − + − − − ENSG00000146411 SLC2A12 B − − ++ − − * * ENSG00000138449 SLC40A1 E − ++ − ++ + ENSG00000155465 SLC7A7 C − − − − − * ENSG00000128602 SMO C − − − − − * * ENSG00000077312 SNRPA E − − + − − * ENSG00000134532 SOX5 B − − − − + * ENSG00000110693 SOX6 E − + − − − * ENSG00000132122 SPATA6 B + + − − − * ENSG00000138134 STAMBPL1 C − + + + + * * ENSG00000101846 STS C − + − − − * ENSG00000054654 SYNE2 B − − − − − ENSG00000166012 TAF1D E − + − − + * ENSG00000139372 TDG D − − − − − ENSG00000257949 TEN1 E − − + − − ENSG00000168769 TET2 E − − − − − * * ENSG00000187605 TET3 E − − − − − * ENSG00000120708 TGFBI D − − − − − * ENSG00000169231 THBS3 D + + + − − * * ENSG00000113272 THG1L D − − − − − * * ENSG00000100575 TIMM9 D − − − − − * ENSG00000163931 TKT D − + − − − ENSG00000133687 TMTC1 B − − +++ − + * ENSG00000196683 TOMM7 D − − − + − * ENSG00000131747 TOP2A B − − +++ − − * * ENSG00000141933 TPGS1 D − − − − − * ENSG00000198467 TPM2 D − − − − − * ENSG00000133112 TPT1 D − − − − − * * ENSG00000124496 TRERF1 B − − + − − * ENSG00000221983 UBA52 D − − − − − * * ENSG00000156467 UQCRB E − − − − − ENSG00000152818 UTRN C − − − − − * * ENSG00000026025 VIM D − − − − − ENSG00000171425 ZNF581 E − − − − − * ENSG00000168916 ZNF608 C − − − − + ^(†)The letters A-F each represent a log₂ fold change in translational profile caused by TGFβ, with the following values: A = <−2.5; B = <−1.5 to −2.5; C = <−1.0 to −1.5; D = <1.0 to 1.5; E = <1.5 to 2.5; F = >2.5. Letters A-C each represent a decrease in translation, while D-F each represent an increase in translation. ^(‡)The effect of each compound in renormalizing the translational profile of each gene is shown as log₂ fold change as follows: − = <0.9; + = 0.9 to 1.5; ++ = 1.5 to 2.0; +++ = >2.0. Cells that are blank indicate no data was obtained. ∥The change in translational profile for each gene was not statistically significant (NS) in each of the three TGFβ modulation experiments (Exp), but each trended in the same direction and a scatter plot (see FIG. 13) shows that the translational regulation was highly correlated between experiments. Cells that are blank indicate the value obtained for that gene was statistically significant for that experiment.

Each of the compounds tested (PP242, silvestrol, pirfenidone, CPX, and TSA) showed a pronounced effect on renormalizing the levels of the fibrosis biomarkers procollagen and α-SMA, which had both increased in the presence of TGFβ (see Table 6). While these two biomarkers were not observed to be directly regulated at the translational level, ribosome profiling showed that expression of other genes was modulated at the translational level (see Table 7). Indeed, an analysis of the differential translational profile of healthy cells as compared to cells having a fibrotic disease state (i.e., TGFβ-modulated) as compared to the diseased cells treated with PP242, silvestrol, pirfenidone, CPX or TSA showed that each of these compounds is an agent that modulates translation in a fibrotic disease.

Moreover, a heat map of the differential translational profile for these compounds (Δ log₂ fold change (fibrotic cells vs. treated fibrotic cells) cut off of ≥1) reveals that each agent (PP242, silvestrol, pirfenidone, CPX, and TSA) has a unique renormalization profile (see FIG. 14). Genes that show the most renormalization appear “white” in the heat map, while genes that are not renormalized appear “black” in the heat map and the genes that are “gray” had an intermediate level of renormalization. For example, pirfenidone renormalizes a number of genes that are also renormalized to the same degree by PP242, but many of the modulated genes are unique to pirfenidone. In contrast, each of silvestrol, CPX and TSA have very few genes that overlap with PP242 or pirfenidone, but each has its own strongly unique fingerprints.

Overall, each compound produces a unique gene signature associated with translational efficiency. Pirfenidone uniquely modulated the translational efficiency of 35 genes (CREB5, DIAPH3, LGALS1, NACA, RPL12, RPL13A, RPL17, RPL21, RPL22L1, RPL23, RPL26, RPL27A, RPL28, RPL3, RPL30, RPL34, RPL36, RPL37, RPL37A, RPL4, RPL7A, RPS9, RPLP1, RPLP2, RPS10, RPS16, RPS19, RPS27, RPS5, RPS8, RPS9, SLC25A6, SOX6, STS, TKT) (i.e., not modulated, minimally modulated or not statistically significantly modulated by any of the other compounds tested), silvestrol uniquely modulated 26 genes (ABCA6, ANKH, CARD16, CEP192, DDX60, DNASE1L1, DYNC2H1, EDN1, HBEGF, HOMER1, INHBA, KDM6B, LENG9, MATN3, MYO19, NRG1, PABPC4, PLD1, PLEKHA5, RASD1, SGIP1, SLC2A12, SNRPA, TENT, TOP2A, TRERF1), PP242 uniquely modulated five genes (C9orf85, EIF3E, GAPDH, HNRNPA1, MRPL45), CPX uniquely modulated six genes (CES1, LAMPS, PAQR5 PLEKHG1, ROBO2, TOMM7) and TSA uniquely modulated 13 genes (AOX1, ARPC1A, AURKA, C12orf57, GPSM2, KITLG, MAP3K5, MURC, NOV, RPL14, SLC15A3, SOX5, ZNF608).

In addition, there are unique gene signatures that overlap between two compounds. For example, there are a total of 19 genes (ANKDD1A, ATP5G2, CHCHD10, DNAJC22, FGF5, FMO2, GNB2L1, GLTSCR2, HIGD2A, IFIH, MTUS1, RPS18, RPL18A, RPL31, RPL35A, RPL5, RPS18, RPS29, SPATA6) modulated by both pirfenidone and PP242; one gene (RPS6KA5) modulated by both silvestrol and PP242; one gene (BIVM) modulated by both PP242 and CPX; two genes (ACTA1, KRT7) modulated by both pirfenidone and CPX; four genes (AMIGO3, CCDC102B, RPL10, TAF1D) modulated by both pirfenidone and TSA; two genes (ADAMTS5, LAMB3) modulated by both silvestrol and CPX; eight genes (CLCF1, EPB41L1, GAS2L3, IRAK3, LPAR3, PCBP2, PDE7B, TMTC1) modulated by silvestrol and TSA; five genes (FRMD4A, GDF10, OBSCN, PLEKHA6, SHC3) modulated by CPX and TSA.

Finally, there are unique gene signatures that overlap between groups of three or four compounds. For example, one gene (THBS3) was modulated by pirfenidone, silvestrol and PP242; one gene (RPS28) was modulated by pirfenidone, CPX and PP242; five genes (EEF1A1, EEF2, EIF4B, FMO2, RAB3D) were modulated by pirfenidone, TSA and PP242; three genes (CIT, PDE4B, PPARG) were modulated by pirfenidone, TSA and silvestrol; one gene (SLC40A1) was modulated by pirfenidone, TSA and CPX; three genes (ASPM, CA5B, GLCCI1) were modulated by pirfenidone, PP242, silvestrol and TSA; two genes (GLTSCR2, P2RX7) were modulated by pirfenidone, PP242, CPX and TSA; and one gene (STAMBPL1) was modulated by pirfenidone, silvestrol, CPX and TSA.

As is evident, the modulated genes (i.e., targets for drug development) include those that encode proteins of the translation machinery, regulators of the translation machinery, proteins that modify disease, and downstream proteins.

The various embodiments described above can be combined to provide further embodiments. All of the U.S. patents, U.S. patent application publications, U.S. patent applications, foreign patents, foreign patent applications and non-patent publications referred to in this specification and/or listed in the Application Data Sheet, including but not limited to U.S. Patent Application No. 61/937,272, are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. Aspects of the embodiments can be modified, if necessary, to employ concepts of the various patents, applications and publications to provide further embodiments.

These and other changes can be made to the embodiments in light of the above-detailed description. In general, in the following claims, the terms used should not be construed to limit the claims to the specific embodiments disclosed in the specification and the claims, but should be construed to include all possible embodiments along with the full scope of equivalents to which such claims are entitled. Accordingly, the claims are not limited by the disclosure. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for reducing myofibroblasts, comprising administering to a human subject having idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis a therapeutically effective amount of a modulator specific for eIF4A, eIF4E, or both, thereby reducing the amount of myofibroblasts.
 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein the modulator is administered after a fibrotic lesion has developed in the subject.
 3. The method according to claim 1, wherein the modulator is formulated with a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient.
 4. The method according to claim 1, wherein the modulator is administered in combination with one or more adjunctive therapeutic agents.
 5. The method according to claim 4, wherein the one or more adjunctive therapeutic agents is selected from angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor, nintedanib, STX-100, QAX576, CNTO-888, SD-208, SB-525334, GC1008, BMS-986202, AM152, lebrikizumab, tralokinumab, SAR156597, PRM-151, simtuzumab (AB0024, GS-6624), GSK2126458, FG-3019, captopril, genistein, silvestrol or derivatives thereof, pirfenidone, pateamine A or derivatives thereof, hippuristanol, or EUK-207.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the modulator specific for eIF4A or eIF4E comprises an siRNA.
 7. The method of claim 4, wherein (a) the modulator comprises a modulator of eIF4A and the adjunctive therapeutic agent comprises a modulator of eIF2AK1, (b) the modulator comprises a modulator of eIF4A and the adjunctive therapeutic agent comprises a modulator of DHPS, or (c) the modulator comprises a modulator of eIF4A and the adjunctive therapeutic agent comprises a modulator of DOHH.
 8. The method of claim 4, wherein the comprise (a) the modulator comprises a modulator of eIF4E and the adjunctive therapeutic agent comprises a modulator of eIF2AK1, (b) the modulator comprises a modulator of eIF4E and the adjunctive therapeutic agent comprises a modulator of DHPS, or (c) the modulator comprises a modulator of eIF4E and the adjunctive therapeutic agent comprises a modulator of DOHH. 